UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PUBLICATIONS 

COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 


BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION 

AND  ASSOCIATED  DISEASES  OF 
CATTLE  AND  NEW-BORN  CALVES 


I.  METHODS  OF  CONTROLLING  ABORTION 
GEOEGE  H.  HART 

II.   THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  BACTERIUM  ABORTUM  OF  BANG  AND  OTHER   MICRO- 
ORGANISMS IN  BOVINE   INFECTIOUS  ABORTION 

JACOB  TRAUM 

III.  MANIFESTATIONS  OF  ABORTION  DISEASE  WITHOUT  DEMONSTRABLE 
ETIOLOGICAL  FACTOR 

JACOB  TRAUM  and  GEORGE  H.  HART 

IV.  DISEASES  OF  THE  GENITAL  TRACT  OF  CATTLE  FREOUENTLY  ASSOCIATED 

WITH  ABORTION 

FRED  M.  HAYES 

V.  THE  DIAGNOSIS  OF  PREGNANCY  IN  CATTLE 
GEORGE  H.  HART 

VI.  SCOURS  AND  PNEUMONIA  IN  CALVES 
GEORGE  H.  HART  and  JACOB  TRAUM 


BULLETIN  No.  353 

January,  1923 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PRESS 

BERKELEY 

1923 


David  P.  Barrows,  President  of  the  University. 

EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 

HEADS   OF   DIVISIONS 

Thomas  Forsyth  Hunt,  Dean. 

Edward  J.  Wickson,  Horticulture  (Emeritus). 

,  Director  of  Eesident  Instruction. 

C.  M.  Haring,  Veterinary  Science,  Director  of  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

B.  H.  Crocheron,  Director  of  Agricultural  Extension. 

C.  B.  Hutchison,  Plant  Breeding,  Director  of  the  Branch  of  the  College  of 

Agriculture,  Davis. 
H.  J.  Webber,  Subtropical  Horticulture,  Director  Citrus  Experiment  Station. 
William  A.  Setchell,  Botany. 
Myer  E.  Jaffa,  Nutrition. 
Ralph  E.  Smith,  Plant  Pathology. 
John  W.  Gilmore,  Agronomy. 
Charles  F.  Shaw,  Soil  Technology. 
John  W.  Gregg,  Landscape  Gardening  and  Floriculture. 
Frederic  T.  Bioletti,  Viticulture  and  Fruit  Products. 
Warren  T.  Clarke,  Agricultural  Extension. 
Ernest  B.  Babcock,  Genetics. 
Gordon  H.  True,  Animal  Husbandry. 
Walter  Mulford,  Forestry. 
James  T.  Barrett,  Plant  Pathology. 
W.  P.  Kelley,  Agricultural  Chemistry. 
H.  J.  Quayle,  Entomology. 
Elwood  Mead,  Rural  Institutions. 
H.  S.  Reed,  Plant  Physiology. 
L.  D.  Batchelor,  Orchard  Management. 
W.  L.  Howard,  Pomology. 
^Frank  Adams,  Irrigation  Investigations. 

C.  L.  Roadhouse,  Dairy  Industry. 
R.  L.  Adams,  Farm  Management. 

W.  B.  Herms,  Entomology  and  Parasitology. 
John  E.  Dougherty,  Poultry  Husbandry. 

D.  R.  Hoagland,  Plant  Nutrition. 
G.  H.  Hart,  Veterinary  Science. 

L.  J.  Fletcher,  Agricultural  Engineering. 
Edwin  C.  Voorhies,  Assistant  to  the  Dean. 


DIVISION    OF  VETERINARY   SCIENCE 

G.  H.  Hart.  J.  Traum. 

F.  M.  Hayes.  J.  R.  Beach. 


*  In  cooperation  with  Division  of  Agricultural  Engineering,  Bureau  of  Public  Roads,  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

I.   Methods  of  Controlling  Abortion: 271 

The  Location  of  Bacterium  abortum  Organisms  in  the  Body  of  Infected 

Animals 271 

Escape  and  Life  of  the  Organisms  outside  of  the  Body  of  Animals 274 

Method  of  Drawing  Blood  for  the  Agglutination  and  Complement 

Fixation  Tests 277 

Discussion  of  this  Method  of  Diagnosis 279 

Procedure  in  Uninfected  Herds 280 

Procedure  in  Infected  Herds 282 

Outline  of  Vaccination  Experiments  Now  Being  Conducted  by  this 

Station 288 

Abortion,  a  Self-Limiting  Disease 290 

Summary  and  Conclusions 291 

II.   The  Importance  of  Bacterium  abortum  of  Bang  and  Other  Microorganisms 

in  Bovine  Infectious  Abortion  294 

Introduction 294 

Review  of  the  Investigations  bearing  on  the  Cause  of  Infectious  Abor- 
tion of  Cattle 296 

Pathogenicity  Tests  of  Various  Strains  of  Bacterium  abortum 308 

Observations  upon  Forty  Aborted  Fetuses  Received  at  Berkeley 309 

Discussion 320 

The  Power  of  Bacterium  abortum  to  Produce  Manifestations  of 

Abortion  Disease 321 

The  Failures  of  Bacterium  abortum  to  Produce  Manifestations  of 

Abortion  Disease 321 

The  Extent  of  Bacterium  abortum  Infection 322 

Other  Organisms   Connected   with    Manifestations   of   Abortion 

Disease 323 

Conclusions 327 

III.   Manifestations  of  Abortion  Disease  Without    Demonstrable    Etiological 

Factor 

History  of  the  Herd 327 

Cases  of  Abortion 327 

Summary  of  the  Cases 330 

Other  Cases  Showing  Difficulties  of  Breeding 340 

Feeding  of  the  Herd 341 

Condition  of  Animals  to  Date 342 

Other  Factors  Associated  with  Breeding  Difficulties  as  Possible  Con- 
tributing Causes  of  Abortion 342 

Febrile  Diseases  and  Injury 342 

Poisonous  Plants,  Spoiled  Feed,  and  Alfalfa 343 

Impaired  Breeding  Ability  on  the  Part  of  the  Bull 345 

The  Effect  of  Diet  on  Reproduction 345 


PAGES 

IV.  Associated  Diseases  of  the  Genital  Tract  of  Cattle 347 

Retained  Placenta 348 

Metritis  and  Endometritis 354 

Pyometra 356 

Cervicitis 358 

Salpingitis 359 

Cystic  Degeneration  of  the  Ovaries 362 

Discussion 366 

V.  The  Diagnosis  of  Pregnancy  in  Cattle 367 

The  Estrus  Cycle 367 

Changes  taking  Place  in  the  Genital  Tract  during  the  Estrus  Cycle 

Phases , 368 

Irregularities  in  the  Estrus  Cycle 370 

Changes  in  the  Genital  Organs  occuring  in  Pregnancy... 373 

External  Manifestations  of  Pregnancy 377 

Economic  Value  of  the  Knowledge  of  the  Presence  and  Stage  of  Preg- 
nancy  : 377 

Summary  and  Conclusions 379 

VI.  Scours  and  Pneumonia  in  Calves 380 

Introduction 380 

Bacterial  Causes 381 

Avenues  of  Infection 384 

Incidence  of  the  Diseace 387 

Factors  aside  from  Bacterial  Agents  in  the  Causation  of  the  Disease....  388 

Prevention 390 

Treatment 391 

VII.  References : 393 

VIII.  Glossary 397 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Non-pregnant  Genital  Tract  of  the  Cow 293 

Illustrating  Method  Used  in  Growing  Bacterium  abortum  under  C02  310 
Gravid  Uterus  of  Cow  at  Full  Term,  Laid  Open  to  Show  Fetal  Sac 

with  Faint  Outline  of  Fetus 326 

A  Cotyledon  from  a  Pregnant  Uterus 349 

Enlarged  Cystic  Ovary  on  Left,  with  Normal  Ovary  on  Right 363 

Cross-Section  of  the  Cystic  Ovary  (left)  shown  in  Figure  V 363 

Cow  with  Long-standing  Cystic  Ovaries 364 

Cow  with  Cystic  Ovaries  of  Two  Years'  Standing 365 

Microscopic  Section  of  Ovary  of  Cow,  Showing  a  Graafian  Follicle 

with  Ovum 369 

Figure  10.    Three  Pairs  of  Ovaries  from  Cows,  each  Pair  Showing  an  Ovary 

Containing  a  Corpus  Luteum 371 

Figure  11.     Same  as  Figure  10,  with  the  Ovaries  Containing  the  Corpus  Lutei 

Cut  in  Cross-Section 371 

Figure  12.     Microphotograph  of  Spermatozoa  from  a  Bull,  magnified  x800 375 


Figure 

1. 

Figure 

2. 

Figure 

3. 

Figure 

4. 

Figure 

5. 

Figure 

6. 

Figure 

7. 

Figure 

8. 

Figure 

9. 

I 

METHODS  OF  CONTROLLING  ABORTION 

By  GEOEGE  H.  HAET 


THE  LOCATION  OF  BACTEEIUM  ABOETUM  OEGANISMS  IN  THE  BODY 
OF   INFECTED   ANIMALS 

The  location  in  the  animal  body  of  the  causative  organism  of 
abortion  has  been  a  very  important  fundamental  problem  in  out- 
lining methods  for  the  control  of  the  disease  and  one  which  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  study  and  experimentation.  W.  L.  Williams89 
in  1916,  and  again  in  192190  carefully  outlined  the  theory  that  calves 
in  infected  herds  or  calves  fed  raw  milk  containing  Bacterium  dbor- 
tum  or  other  organisms  became  infected,  continued  to  harbor  the 
organisms  until  they  reached  maturity,  and  were  very  liable  to  abort 
with  their  first  pregnancies.  This  theory  has  been  rather  definitely 
refuted  by  experiments  of  Dick  and  Duebler18  in  Pennsylvania,  by 
Simms  and  Miller71  in  Oregon,  and  by  observations  in  various  parts 
of  this  and  other  countries.  Prior  to  and  coincident  with  the  refuta- 
tion of  this  theory,  experimental  work  designed  to  ascertain  the 
sites  in  the  body  of  the  infected  animal  which  constituted  the  seat  of 
temporary  and  permanent  location  of  the  abortion  organisms  was 
carried  on  extensively.  The  result,  of  this  work  has  greatly  increased 
our  knowledge  regarding  this  important  phase  of  the  disease.  Today 
the  work  of  Schroeder  and  Cotton65-  66> 67,  Mohler  and  Traum49,  Buck, 
Creech  and  Ladson8  in  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  and  of 
other  investigators  has  established  the  fact  there  are  four  definite 
locations  of  Bacterium  abortum  in  the  body  of  infected  animals.  It 
is  important  for  owners  of  live  stock  to  know  something  of  these 
seats  of  localization  and  to  understand  how  the  organisms  leave  the 
body  of  one  animal  and  gain  access  to  the  bodies  of  other  animals. 

Udder  and  Supramammary  Lymph  Glands. — The  udder  and  the 
supramammary  lymph  glands  are  probably  of  first  importance  in  this 
regard  because  in  mature  cows  in  which  the  udder  has  been  active 
they  become  the  more  or  less  permanent  seats  of  the  organisms  in  a 
considerable  percentage  of  infected  animals.  The  organisms  will 
remain  in  these  glands  and  be  given  off  very  regularly  in  the  milk 
for    a    period    of    years  —  in    one  cow,    under    the    observation    of 


272  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Schroeder03,  for  a  period  of  seven  years.  On  the  other  hand,  except 
in  one  case  of  apparently  natural  infection,  reported  by  Carpenter10, 
and  one  case  in  an  adult  virgin  four-year-old  animal  following  intra- 
venous inoculation  by  Schroeder65,  the  organism  has  not  been  found 
in  the  undeveloped  udder  or  supramammary  lymph  glands  of  unbred 
heifers.  The  general  opinion  supported  by  field  results,  is  that  in 
such  animals,  these  glands  are  very  rarely  seats  of  the  infection  even 
though  the  animals  may  be  exposed  to  it  during  the  early  period  of 
their  lives.  Infection  is  at  most  so  unusual  as  to  be  of  little  practical 
importance  in  formulating  measures  for  the  control  of  the  disease. 
Pregnant  Uterus  and  Discharges  From  Genital  Tract. — The  sec- 
ond important  place  in  which  the  organism  is  found  is  in  the  pregnant 
uterus  and  in  discharges  from  the  genital  tract  following  abortion  or 
normal  parturition.  The  premature  expulsion  of  the  fetus  is  the 
final  act  in  the  chain  of  events  following  infection  with  the  Bacterium 
abortum  Bang.  The  organism  may  produce  this  event  at  any  stage 
of  gestation,  from  shortly  after  conception  to  the  normal  time  for 
the  birth  of  the  calf.  A  certain  period  of  time,  which  varies  in 
individual  animals,  is  required  from  the  entrance  of  the  organisms 
into  the  animal's  body  until  abortion  occurs,  and  the  end  of  gestation 
may  intervene  before  this  has  taken  place.  The  offspring  in  such  a 
case  will  be  born  apparently  normal  and  alive,  although  the  uterus, 
membranes,  and  discharges  are  teeming  with  the  organisms.  For 
this  reason  all  animals  in  infected  herds  must  at  this  time  be  looked 
upon  as  possible  spreaders  of  the  organism  even  though  they  have 
not  and  may  never  abort.  According  to  Theobald  Smith73,  who  has 
made  a  very  careful  and  enlightening  histo-pathological  study  of  the 
mode  of  entrance  and  changes  produced  by  Bacterium  abortum  in 
the  pregnant  uterus  of  cattle,  the  bacteria  are  deposited  in  the 
maternal  cotyledons  by  the  blood  stream.  From  here  they  pass 
through  to  the  fetal  cotyledons  and  gradually  spread  out  over  the 
epithelium  of  the  chorion  or  external  fetal  membrane,  and  in  this 
process  they  destroy  the  cells  and  cause  them  to  be  exfoliated.  They 
then  pass  through  into  the  amniotic  fluid,  and,  in  the  physiological 
process  of  the  swallowing  of  this  fluid  by  the  fetus,  they  are  carried 
into  the  stomach,  or  they  may  reach  the  interior  of  the  body  of  the 
fetus  direct  from  the  placenta  through  the  umbilical  vein.  The 
cotyledons  and  membranes,  therefore,  become  infected  first  in  the 
progress  of  the  bacteria  and  may  be  the  only  parts  containing  the 
organisms  when  gestation  ends  and  parturition  occurs.  Experiments 
by  Schroeder  and  Cotton65  have  rather  definitely  shown,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  the  non-pregnant  uterus  does  not  harbor  the  organisms 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  273 

and  that  they  leave  an  infected  womb  in  a  few  weeks  after  parturi- 
tion or  abortion.  The  longest  time  it  was  found  by  them  to  remain 
in  the  womb  was  fifty-one  days  following  the  emptying  of  the  uterus. 
Organisms  in  great  numbers  experimentally  placed  in  the  empty 
uterus  remained  there  only  a  few  days.  Bulls  experimentally  infected 
by  placing  the  organisms  in  the  sheath  and  smearing  them  over  the 
penis  just  prior  to  copulation  did  not  transmit  infection  to  the 
female.  Thus  it  would  appear  that  the  empty  uterus  is  not  a  favor- 
able seat  for  the  multiplication  of  the  organisms  even  though  they 
do  gain  access  to  it.  This  condition  changes,  however,  after  preg- 
nancy, and  McFadyean  and  Stockman42  and  others  have  shown  that 
experimentally  cattle  may  become  infected  by  the  vaginal  route 
after  pregnancy  has  been  established  for  some  weeks  or  months. 

Genital  Tract  of  Bulls. — The  third  definite  location  of  the  organ- 
isms is  in  the  genital  tract  or  the  accessory  glands  of  a  certain  per- 
centage of  bulls.  Here  it  may  set  up  small  foci  of  inflammation  and 
abscess  formation  from  which  the  organisms  may  constantly  escape 
from  the  animal  through  the  discharges  from  the  genital  tract.  Even 
though  the  experiments  of  Schroeder  and  Cotton07  tend  to  show  that 
organisms  excreted  from  such  an  animal  into  the  vagina  of  the 
female  at  the  time  of  copulation  would  not  infect  her,  the  animal 
would  nevertheless  be  passing  the  organisms  on  to  litter  and  other 
material  which  came  in  contact  with  his  discharges.  The  lesions  of 
the  genital  tract  of  the  bull  may  be  recognized  on  physical  examina- 
tion in  certain  rare  cases,  but  failure  to  find  such  a  condition  is  not 
definite  evidence  that  the  animal  is  free  from  infection.  This  condi- 
tion may  be  determined  by  the  agglutination  test  applied  to  the 
animal's  blood. 

G  astro -Intestinal  Tract  of  Calves. — The  fourth  seat  of  the  organ- 
ism is  the  gastro-intestinal  tract  of  calves  during  the  periods  when 
they  are  fed  on  infected  milk.  It  is  not  generally  believed  that  the 
organisms  remain  permanently  in  the  bodies  of  these  animals  after 
they  are  weaned,  because  of  the  fact  that  the  udder,  the  permanent 
seat  of  infection,  is  not  subject  to  such  infection  until  it  becomes 
active  prior  to  and  following  the  first  parturition.  Definite  experi- 
mental evidence  that  such  animals  excrete  abortion  bacilli  with  the 
intestinal  discharges  has  not  been  established.  As  they  are  frequently 
ingesting  the  organisms  in  large  numbers  with  the  milk,  however, 
this  should  be  considered  a  possible  means  of  spreading  the  infection 
until  it  is  definitely  proved  otherwise. 

Outside  of  these  four  locations,  the  organism  is  not  found  with 
any  regularity  in  other  parts  of  the  animal  body.     Schroeder  and 


274  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Cotton65  have  injected  them  in  suspensions  into  the  circulating  blood 
and  could  not  recover  them  from  the  blood  after  a  period  of  two 
hours.  In  unborn  infected  fetuses  and  aborts,  it  is  found  with  great 
regularity  in  the  lungs  and  stomach  contents,  having  reached  the 
inside  of  the  body  through  the  blood  stream  from  the  cotyledons  or  in 
the  physiological  process  of  swallowing  the  amniotic  fluid  which 
becomes  infected  with  the  organisms  after  they  have  passed  through 
the  cotyledons  and  chorion. 


ESCAPE   AND   LIFE   OF   THE    OEGANISMS   OUTSIDE   OF    THE   BODIES 

OF  ANIMALS 

Since  abortion  is  a  chronic  disease,  its  manifestations  are  not 
recognized  for  weeks  or  months  after  infection  occurs,  a  fact  that  in 
some  cases  makes  it  difficult  to  trace  the  source  of  the  infection.  Not 
only  is  a  knowledge  of  the  location  of  the  organisms  in  the  animal 
body  necessary,  but  also  their  method  of  escape  and  existence  outside 
of  the  body  are  factors  of  equal  importance  in  controlling  the  disease. 
Present  knowledge  leads  us  to  believe  that  the  organism  is  strictly 
parasitic  and  cannot  multiply  outside  the  body  of  a  susceptible  animal. 
It  is  found  in  nature  only  as  the  result  of  contamination  with  dis- 
charges from  infected  animals  in  which  it  is  present.  Under  favorable 
conditions  of  moisture  and  protection  from  sunlight,  however,  it 
will  live  for  a  period  of  weeks  or  even  months  outside  of  the  body  of 
the  host  animal.  An  abortion  occuring  in  pasture,  it  can  readily 
be  seen,  offers  an  ideal  means  of  spreading  the  organisms  over  the 
feed  supply  of  the  remainder  of  the  herd.  The  same  condition  arises 
when  abortion  occurs  around  farm  buildings  or  when  the  animal 
is  allowed  to  mix  indiscriminately  with  the  herd  in  pasture  or  corral 
for  several  weeks  following  an  abortion,  while  she  may  be  still 
discharging  the  organisms  from  her  vulva.  Under  such  conditions 
animals  have  been  seen  to  smell  and  actually  lick  up  visible  amounts 
of  vaginal  discharge  from  the  ground.  The  throwing  of  infected 
litter  and  bedding  from  the  stable  into  a  corral  is  also  a  source  of 
infection  because  of  the  very  common  habit  of  cattle  to  eat  straw 
and  other  bedding  soiled  with  urine  and  feces,  from  the  ground  of  a 
corral  even  when  good  hay  is  available  in  feed  racks.  As  the  after- 
birth and  uterine  discharge  may  be  teeming  with  the  organisms  even 
when  parturition  is  normal,  this  is  the  period  of  time  when  all  animals 
in  infected  herds  must  be  looked  upon  as  possible  spreaders  of  the 
infection. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  275 

Bulls  gaining  access  to  the  premises  from  outside  sources  may 
spread  the  organisms  with  discharges  from  their  urethra.  Although 
from  our  present  knowledge  we  believe  only  a  small  percentage  of 
bulls  are  so  infected,  their  discharges  are  definitely  known  to  be  a 
source  of  such  infection  and  therefore  should  be  guarded  against. 

Calves  during  the  milk  drinking  period  may  be  passing  the  organ- 
isms with  their  feces   and  thus   contaminating  their   surroundings. 

Bacterium  abortum  is  very  frequently  present  in  large  numbers 
in  milk,  and  care  should  therefore  be  exercised  not  to  allow  such 
milk  to  become  a  source  of  infection.  Possible  opportunity  for  such 
a  means  of  infecting  herds  to  occur  under  ordinary  farm  conditions 
is  present  when  unpasteurized  skim-milk  from  creameries  .is  taken 
to  uninfected  premises;  also  when  excess  skim-milk  and  overflow 
milk  from  a  creamery  or  skimming  station  are  allowed  to  run  into  a 
drain  pipe  which  opens  into  a  flowing  stream.  Organisms  from  such  a 
stream  passing  through  pasture  lands  and  furnishing  drinking  water 
may  be  taken  into  the  bodies  of  susceptible  animals  even  at  a  distance 
of  several  miles  from  the  plant.  It  is  possible  for  infection  to  be 
carried  from  a  cow  giving  off  the  organisms  with  her  milk,  to  a 
susceptible  cow,  on  the  hands  of  the  milker  or  the  teat  cups  of  a 
milking  machine,  in  which  event  the  infection  would  enter  the 
uninfected  animal  by  way  of  the  teat  duct  and  establish  itself  first 
in  the  udder. 

It  should  therefore  be  recognized  that  there  are  many  ways  by 
which  the  organism,  after  leaving  the  body  of  an  infected  animal, 
by  one  of  the  comparatively  few  and  well  understood  channels,  may 
gain  access  to  the  surroundings  of  other  even  remotely  situated 
animals  and  set  up  a  new  focus  of  the  disease. 

The  direct  route,  however,  by  which  animals  become  infected  with 
the  organism  under  practical  ranch  conditions  in  the  vast  majority 
of  cases  is  by  way  of  the  digestive  tract  through  the  ingestion  of 
contaminated  food.  The  original  contamination  on  the  uninfected 
ranch  occurs  through  the  purchase  and  addition  to  the  clean  herd 
of  one  or  more  animals  infected  with  the  organisms  and  giving  them 
off  from  their  bodies  without  necessarily  having  themselves  any 
observable  breeding  difficulties.  Experimental  evidence  shows  that 
animals  may  become  infected  in  other  ways,  such  as  by  way  of 
the  vagina  after  pregnancy  has  become  established;  by  way  of  the 
teat  duct  and  udder,  (Schroeder  and  Cotton65),  by  way  of  the  con- 
junctiva (Seddon68),  in  laboratory  animals;  but  these  sources  of 
infection  probably  do  not  exist  or  are  of  only  secondary  importance 
under  ordinary  conditions  of  handling  cattle  on  the  farm. 


276  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

The  direct  transmission  of  the  infection  from  the  male  to  the 
female,  or  vice  versa  in  the  act  of  copulation  is  no  longer  held  to  be 
an  important  means  of  spreading  the  disease,  if  it  is  a  factor  at  all. 
This  addition  to  our  knowledge  regarding  the  disease  minimizes  the 
importance  of  the  one-time  widespread  recommendation  and  frequent 
application  of  the  routine  practice  of  douching  the  sheath  of  the  bull 
before  and  after  each  service.  Such  treatment  at  best  only  disinfects 
the  sheath  and  exterior  of  the  penis,  while  in  infe2ted  bulls  the  organ- 
isms have  been  found  in  the  seminal  vesicles  and  epididymis  where 
they  cannot  be  reached  by  disinfectants  and  from  which  they  are 
discharged  into  the  vagina  with  the  semen  at  the  time  of  copulation. 

The  important  factor  to  recognize,  therefore,  is  that  the  infection 
is  spread  from  herd  to  herd  largely  by  the  addition  to  the  uninfected 
herd  of  infected  animals  from  outside  sources.  The  great  amount  of 
movement  of  live  stock  in  the  ordinary  channels  of  trade  has  been 
the  means  of  spreading  this  disease,  as  well  as  the  other  great  chronic 
scourge,  tuberculosis,  among  the  live  stock  throughout  the  whole  state 
and  country.  Frequently  an  unscrupulous  owner  of  live  stock,  despite 
a  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  the  disease  in  his  herd,  has  advertised 
it  for  sale  and  through  the  medium  of  the  public  auction  has  dis- 
tributed the  animals  in  small  groups  or  individually  to  many  new 
premises,  so  that  a  high  percentage  of  the  dairy  herds  of  any  size, 
and  many  of  the  range  herds,  have  become  infected  with  the  disease. 
Live  stock  men  must  recognize  the  importance  of  this  means  of 
spreading  disease  and  help  to  develop  proper  regulations  to  prevent 
it.  Owners  have  too  often  in  the  past  looked  upon  regulations  for 
disease  control  as  unnecessary  hindrances  to  the  operation  of  their 
business.  The  success  of  the  Federal  Accredited  Herd  Plan  in 
tuberculosis  eradication  is  evidence  that  cooperation  of  cattle  men  in 
solving  disease  problems  leads  to  success  and  the  consequent  financial 
stabilizing  of  the  industry.  When  purchases  are  to  be  made — and 
it  is  fully  recognized  that  this  is  and  always  will  be  very  frequently 
necessary  for  the  continuation  of  the  live  stock  business — certain 
efforts  should  be  made  to  see  that  the  animals  have  a  good  breeding 
history  and  that  they  are  free  from  infection.  The  agglutination 
and  the  complement  fixation  tests  are  means  at  our  disposal  of  helping 
to  ascertain  whether  or  not  infection  exists  in  animals  to  be  purchased. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  277 


METHOD    OF   DRAWING   BLOOD   FOR    THE    AGGLUTINATION   AND 
COMPLEMENT  FIXATION  TESTS 

Drawing  blood  is  an  operation  that  is  being  more  and  more  com- 
monly carried  out  and  at  times  must  be  done  in  the  absence  of  veterin- 
ary assistance.  The  apparatus  required  depends  on  the  point  from 
which  the  blood  is  to  be  taken.  It  may  be  collected  from  the  ear, 
the  tail,  or  the  jugular  vein.  From  dairy  cows  confined  in  stanchions, 
the  jugular  vein  offers  the  most  convenient  source  from  which  to 
draw  it,  by  means  of  a  sharp  hypodermic  needle  such  as  is  used  in  a 
blackleg  or  hog  cholera  syringe.  These  needles  should  be  boiled 
before  use.  In  going  from  cow  to  cow,  however,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  wash  them  out  with  disinfectant  solution,  followed  by  clear  tap 
water.  Care  must  be  exercised  that  the  lumen  is  open  before  insert- 
ing them,  as  otherwise  no  blood  will  flow  when  the  vein  is  tapped. 
Wire  stilets  for  cleaning  particles  of  blood  clots  from  the  lumen 
should  be  at  hand.  The  most  desirable  needle  for  the  purpose  is  one 
with  the  stem  about  two  inches  long  and  from  fourteen  to  sixteen 
gauge. 

The  animal's  head  is  restrained  by  an  assistant  with  the  fingers 
of  one  hand  in  the  nostrils,  or  with  a  halter,  or  nose  tongs,  pulling 
the  nose  around  to  the  right  side  and,  if  necessary,  tying  it  to  the 
upper  cross-piece  supporting  the  stanchion.  If  long  hair  is  present 
on  the  left  side  of  the  neck,  clip  it  with  scissors  or  clippers  and  sponge 
the  area  with  2  per  cent  compound  solution  of  cresol  or  other  similar 
disinfectant.  With  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  press  upon  the  left 
jugular  groove,  which  will  cause  the  jugular  vein  to  enlarge  by 
retarding  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  heart  so  that  it  can  be  distinctly 
seen.  With  the  needle  held  firmly  in  the  right  hand,  it  is  inserted 
directly  over  the  center  of  the  swollen  vein.  A  strong  push  is  required 
to  insert  even  a  sharp  needle  through  the  thick  skin  of  cattle  as 
compared  to  the  much  thinner  hide  of  the  horse.  It  is  rare  for  the 
needle  to  be  successfully  pushed  through  the  skin  and  into  the  vein 
at  the  same  time.  In  case  it  has  been  inserted  directly  over  the 
center  and  in  the  same  general  direction  of  the  vein,  a  second  sharp 
thrust,  with  the  left  hand  keeping  the  vein  well  distended,  will  usually 
carry  it  in.  Blood  will  then  flow  freely  from  the  needle  and  should 
be  collected  in  clean  dry  glass  vials  or  bottles.  It  is  very  important 
that  the  containers  be  dry  as  a  very  small  amount  of  moisture  will 
cause  the  blood  to  hemolyze/  thereby  coloring  the  serum,  which  may 
form   a   precipitate   or   otherwise   render   interpretation   of   the   test 


278  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 

difficult  or  impossible.  About  15  mils  (one  tablespoon)  of  blood  is  a 
satisfactory  amount;  when  difficulty  is  experienced  in  getting  it  to 
flow  readily,  a  less  amount  can  be  made  to  suffice,  but  in  no  case 
should  this  be  less  than  one  teaspoonful. 

A  list  for  identification  of  the  cows  may  be  kept  on  paper  and  the 
bottles  simply  numbered  on  the  corks,  or,  if  a  label  is  available,  the 
cow's  description  and  number  may  be  placed  on  it  and  the  label 
pasted  on  the  bottle. 

After  the  blood  has  clotted  in  the  bottles,  they  should  be  shaken 
or  sharply  struck  against  the  palm  of  the  hand  to  loosen  the  clot  from 
the  sides,  allowing  it  to  contract  and  the  serum  to  separate. 

In  animals  which  have  to  be  handled  in  chutes — thick-necked  bulls 
and  the  beef  breeds — it  is  difficult  to  make  the  jugular  vein  stand 
out  with  sufficient  prominence  and  also  difficult  for  the  operator  to 
be  in  a  position  to  get  the  needle  into  it.  Under  these  conditions 
blood  must  be  drawn  from  the  ear  or  tail.  In  valuable  animals  where 
it  is  not  desirable  to  slit  the  cartilage  of  the  ear,  the  hair  may  be 
clipped  short  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  ear  and  a  vein  cut  without 
cutting  through  the  cartilage.  The  principal  objections  to  ear  bleed- 
ing is  the  small  amount  of  blood  which  usually  flows  from  the  incision 
and  the  time  required  to  get  a  number  of  samples. 

The  tail  therefore  offers  a  more  favorable  source  under  these  con- 
ditions. In  drawing  blood  from  this  appendage,  the  incision  is  made 
on  the  under  surface,  as  the  blood  vessels  of  the  tail  pass  along  the 
under  surface  and  to  each  side  of  the  coccygeal  vertebrae.  The 
incision  should  be  made  with  a  sharp  knife  and  preferably  over  the 
center  of  the  vertebrae,  rather  than  at  the  end,  so  as  to  avoid  the 
possibility  of  opening  a  joint.  Any  point  on  the  tail  above  the  brush 
may  be  selected  as  the  point  of  incision.  When  the  artery  is  com- 
pletely severed,  blood  flows  very  freely  and,  after  sufficient  is  collected 
the  hand  should  be  held  over  the  incision  to  stop  excessive  bleeding. 
Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  wrap  the  incision  with  cotton  and  a 
bandage  for  a  day  or  two.  With  experience,  the  incision  can  be 
made  deep  enough  in  most  cases  to  get  sufficient  blood  without  pro- 
ducing an  excessive  flow.  There  is  no  danger  of  an  animal  bleeding 
to  death  from  such  an  incision;  the  wound  in  all  cases  under  our 
observation  has  healed  readily,  leaving  practically  no  scar. 

The  blood  samples  should  be  sent  by  express  at  once  to  the  labora- 
tory. In  warm  weather  or  when  long  shipments  are  necessary,  it  is 
preferable  to  let  the  clot  contract  over  night  in  a  cool  place  and  then 
decant  the  clear  serum  off  into  clean  dry  bottles  and  ship.  Only  the 
clear  serum  is  used  in  making  the  test ;  when  this  cannot  be  obtained, 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  279 

the  reading  of  the  test  is  interfered  with.  When  decanting  cannot 
be  carried  out,  the  whole  blood,  during  shipment  in  warm  weather 
should  be  iced. 

DISCUSSION  OF   THIS   METHOD   OF  DIAGNOSIS 

While  the  agglutination  and  complement  fixation  tests  have  a 
definite  place  in  the  control  of  abortion  and  will  undoubtedly  come  into 
much  wider  use  in  the  future  than  they  have  in  the  past,  live  stock 
owners  should  realize  the  limitations  of  the  procedure.  The  agglutina- 
tion test,  which  is  the  one  usually  employed,  consists  in  bringing 
small  amounts  of  the  serum  of  the  animal  to  be  tested  in  contact  with 
a  suspension  of  abortion  organisms  in  physiological  salt  solution  in 
test  tubes  and  allowing  it  to  stand  for  twenty-four  to  forty-eight 
hours.  In  case  the  serum  shows  a  positive  reaction,  the  blood  of  the 
animal  will  contain  what  are  termed  agglutinins,  and  these  will  agglu- 
tinate the  abortion  organisms  so  that  they  will  .clump  together  in  the 
bottom  of  the  tube,  leaving  the  supernatant  physiological  salt  solution 
clear.  If  the  cow  is  not  a  reactor,  her  serum  will  contain  no  agglutin- 
ins, the  abortion  organisms  will  not  become  clumped,  and  the  fluid 
will  remain  cloudy,  the  condition  it  is  in  when  the  serum  is  added. 
The  agglutinins  are  specific  for  the  infecting  organisms  and  will 
agglutinate  no  others.  A  positive  reaction  to  the  agglutination  test 
indicates  that  the  animal  from  which  the  blood  was  drawn  is,  or 
recently  has  been  infected  with  the  disease.  It  is  no  proof  that  she 
will  abort,  because  some  animals  become  infected  with  Bacterium 
abortum  and  never  abort.  These  animals  may,  however,  spread  the 
disease  to  other  animals,  as  already  mentioned. 

In  testing  blood  from  whole  herds  of  animals,  the  agglutination 
test  gives  an  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  infection  in  the  herd.  Animals 
giving  a  positive  reaction  are  the  ones  most  likely  to  abort  in  the 
future.  According  to  Schroeder,  about  60  per  cent  of  the  positive 
reactors  will  expel  the  organisms  with  their  milk.  Some  animals 
shortly  after  abortion  will  give  a  negative  agglutination  test.  In  two 
first-calf  cows  under  our  control  which  had  probably  never  aborted,  a 
suspicious  reaction  to  the  agglutination  test  was  obtained.  They  were 
sent  to  be  slaughtered,  and  blood  taken  at  time  of  killing  was  nega- 
tive. Despite  this  finding,  Bacterium  abortum  was  present  in  the 
supramammary  lymph  glands  of  both  animals.  Single  negative  reac- 
itons  are,  therefore,  not  positive  proof  of  absence  of  infection.  Nega- 
tive reactions  of  whole  herds  are  much  more  valuable. 


280  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Isolation  or  removal  of  positive  reactors,  where  they  are  so  few 
in  number  as  to  make  it  practical,  with  repeated  agglutination  tests 
on  the  remainder,  may  successfully  remove  infection  in  certain  selected 
cases.  The  test  is  rendered  temporarily  or  permanently  valueless  by 
the  previous  administration  of  killed  abortion  organisms,  in  the  form 
of  bacterins,  or  of  live  abortion  organisms  in  the  form  of  vaccine. 


PEOCEDUEE    IN   UNINFECTED   HEEDS 

The  recommendations  to  owners  of  live  stock  in  regard  to  this 
disease  vary  more  or  less  in  each  individual  case.  In  dealing  with  a 
disease  of  such  widespread  nature,  the  conditions  met  with  vary 
exceedingly.  Thus,  in  one  part  of  the  state  we  may  see  a  herd  of 
several  hundred  head  of  range  cattle  to  which  no  additions  are  made 
except  bulls  from  time  to  time.  These  animals  are  constantly  kept 
on  patented  land  and  do  not  mix  with  other  animals.  The  range 
may  be  divided  into  several  isolated  pastures  or  be  practically  all  in 
one.  Owners  of  other  similar  herds  take  their  cattle  to  the  Forest 
Reserve  during  the  summer  season,  at  which  time  they  are  in  more 
or  less  intimate  association  with  other  cattle.  These  are  very  different 
situations  from  that  confronting  the  owner  of  a  dairy  herd  kept  con- 
stantly corralled  on  a  comparatively  small  piece  of  high-priced  land 
with  no  opportunity  to  segregate  groups  of  animals  or  to  raise  young 
stock.  Pure-bred  herds  offer  problems  entirely  different  from  grade 
herds.  It  is  therefore  very  difficult  to  cover  these  extremes  and  the 
gradations  between  them  in  such  a  way  that  the  recommended  pro- 
cedures will  not  appear  impractical  to  some  owners.  The  fact  remains, 
however,  that  the  condition  desired  in  all  cases  depends  on  the 
principles  deduced  from  the  careful  study  and  experimentation  of 
many  investigators  in  various  parts  of  the  world  and  on  the  results 
gained  from  field  experience  in  applying  these  principles  in  the  actual 
handling  of  herds.  In  many  cases  the  ideal  procedure  cannot  be 
carried  out,  but,  if  the  ideal  is  recognized,  it  can  be  approximated  as 
nearly  as  the  individual  circumstances  render  possible,  and  satis- 
factory, partial,  or  poor  results  expected  accordingly. 

The  disease  is  very  widespread — statements  have  been  made  by 
some  that  practically  no  large  dairy  herds  are  free  from  it.  But 
when  we  consider  that  if  new  infection  is  excluded,  the  disease  may 
run  its  course  in  infected  herds,  then  it  is  perfectly  proper  for  an 
owner  to  assume  that  his  herd  is  no  longer  infected  and  to  proceed 
accordingly.  As  the  greatest  source  of  spreading  the  abortion  infec- 
tion is  the  adding  of  new  stock  from  infected  herds,  the  fundamental 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  281 

recommendation  is  to  raise  sufficient  heifers  to  replace  the  adult 
animals  and  thus  reduce  the  purchase  of  animals  to  a  minimum. 
When  this  cannot  be  done,  the  safest  class  of  females  to  add  are  those 
between  weaning  age  and  breeding  age.  Animals  during  this  period 
of  their  lives  are  least  likely  to  carry  the  organism  in  their  bodies. 
It  is  generally  believed  and  has  been  proved  in  practical  experience, 
that  these  animals  so  rarely  carry  infection  that  under  all  ordinary 
conditions  this  is  a  safe  procedure.  However,  Bacterium  abortum 
has  been  isolated  in  rare  cases  from  the  udder  of  heifers  which  have 
never  lactated  (Carpenter10  and  Schroeder65). 

Agglutination  tests  recently  reported  by  Barnes5  showed  13.4  per 
cent  positive  reactions  in  eighty-two  unbred  heifers  over  one  year  of 
age  from  seven  herds,  and  19  per  cent  of  twenty-six  between  six 
months  and  one  year  of  age  from  five  herds.  Therefore,  where  all 
precautions  are  being  taken,  such  heifers  should  have  their  blood 
tested.  This  knowledge  that  females  rarely  carry  the  organisms 
permanently  in  their  bodies  until  it  has  found  lodgment  in  the  udder 
and  supramammary  lymph  glands — and  this  occurs  only  after  the 
gland  has  been  actively  engaged  in  the  secretion  of  milk — does  not 
apply  to  the  male.  Our  knowledge  is  at  present  less  definite  with 
regard  to  this  sex.  It  has  been  conclusively  demonstrated  that  the 
organisms  may  secure  a  permanent  foothold  and  set  up  pathological 
processes  in  the  male  genital  tract  without  in  any  observable  way 
interfering  with  the  general  health  or  breeding  ability  of  the  animal. 
At  just  what  age  this  may  occur  is  not  definitely  known  and  while  in 
those  cases  in  which  this  condition  has  been  reported  the  animals 
were  sexually  mature,  it  is  known  that  bulls  become  sexually  mature 
at  an  early  age.  Therefore,  on  adding  bulls  past  the  weaning  age  to 
clean  herds,  they  should  first  have  the  agglutination  test  applied. 

In  both  pure-bred  and  grade  herds  it  is  necessary  from  time  to 
time  to  add  adult  females  from  outside  sources.  It  is  with  such 
animals  that  infection  is  most  liable  to  be  introduced.  While  adult 
females  from  close-by  herds,  with  whose  breeding  history  the  pur- 
chaser is  acquainted,  may  be  added  with  comparative  safety,  it  is  a 
good  general  rule  of  procedure  to  have  the  blood  of  such  animals 
tested.  Too  much  dependence  cannot  be  placed  on  single  negative 
tests  in  such  animals,  and  when  little  is  known  of  the  breeding  history 
and  conditions  render  it  possible,  a  second  examination  of  their  blood 
should  be  made  after  thirty  to  sixty  days.  This  is  recommended  even 
though  the  animals  cannot  be  kept  isolated  in  the  meantime. 

Owners  of  clean  herds  are  frequently  faced  with  two  other  situa- 
tions which  may  become  sources  of  infection.    One  of  these  is  sending 


282  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

females  away  to  be  bred,  and  the  other  is  admitting  outside  females 
to  the  premises  for  breeding  to  the  herd  sire.  As  already  stated,  there 
is  a  considerable  amount  of  evidence  at  hand  today  to  show  that  the 
act  of  copulation  in  itself  is  not  a  means  of  spreading  infection  from 
female  to  male,  or  vice  versa.  The  danger  is  rather  that  outside  cows 
will  spread  infection  on  the  premises,  either  from  vaginal  discharge 
containing  the  organism,  when  the  cows  are  brought  to  be  bred  too 
soon  after  abortion  or  parturition,  or  by  contamination  of  the  food 
of  the  home  animals;  by  contact  with  milk  of  the  outside  cows. 
Females  going  away  to  infected  ranches  are  more  liable  to  become 
infected  by  ingesting  food  contaminated  with  the  organism  than  by 
service  from  the  bull.  Cows  brought  on  premises  to  be  bred  should 
therefore  remain  on  neutral  territory,  i.e.,  territory  not  occupied  by 
the  home  animals,  and  at  least  two  months  should  have  elapsed  since 
parturition.  Animals  sent  away  to  be  bred  in  herds,  the  abortion 
history  of  which  is  unknown,  should  be  sent  only  to  places  where 
proper  precautions  are  taken  against  infection. 

Finally,  owners  of  uninfected  herds  should  watch  the  water  supply 
and  drainage  conditions  as  a  possible  source  of  contamination. 

Under  range  conditions,  where  cattle  are  taken  into  Forest  Reserve 
range  and  there  mingle  with  other  herds,  the  opportunities  for  keep- 
ing out  infection  are  difficult.  Even  under  such  conditions,  it  is 
common  for  a  group  of  a  comparatively  few  cattlemen  to  largely 
control  the  range  in  particular  valleys  and  meadows,  and  these  men 
should  consider  as  a  group,  the  abortion  problem,  at  least  during  the 
period  of  the  year  when  their  cattle  are  running  together. 

In  small  herds  which  are  members  of  bull  clubs,  it  is  also  necessary 
to  consider  all  the  animals  in  such  a  club  as  a  unit  in  dealing  with 
this  disease. 

PROCEDURE  IN  INFECTED  HEEDS 
The  degree  by  which  the  presence  of  infectious  abortion  in  a  herd 
manifests  itself  in  actual  abortion  varies  widely.  In  some  cases  it 
spreads  through  the  herd  until  the  incidence  of  premature  expulsion 
of  the  fetus  reaches  50  to  75  per  cent  of  the  pregnant  animals;  in  a 
few  rare  instances,  as  high  as  90  per  cent  have  been  known  to  abort. 
In  other  cases  the  disease  seems  to  spread  slowly,  never  becoming  a 
serious  factor  in  the  calf  crop  or  dairy  production,  and,  in  a  few 
rare  instances  in  small  herds,  a  single  case  of  abortion  definitely  due 
to  Bacterium  abortum  Bang  is  all  that  has  been  observed  to  occur. 
Mild  infections  sometimes  develop  sudden  virulence  and  cause  great 
losses.     This  phenomenon  has  been  termed  by  Williams  "abortion 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  283 

storms,"  and  the  potential  danger  of  such  an  infection  should  not 
be  underestimated. 

On  account  of  the  fact  that  abortion  is  a  self -limiting  disease,  many 
substances  have  received  widespread  credit  as  curative  agents  without 
having  any  practical  value  as  such.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
the  carbolic  acid  and  methylene  blue  treatments  and  there  is  a  host  of 
proprietary  preparations.  Any  method  outlined  for  controlling  this 
infection  in  the  herd  must  be  carried  out  on  a  fairly  large  scale  before 
definite  conclusions  can  be  deduced  as  to  its  merit  and  credit  given  for 
good  results.  Each  infected  herd  offers  problems  peculiar  to  itself,  and 
considerable  thought  should  be  given  by  the  owner  and  his  veterin- 
arian to  the  method  to  be  followed  in  limiting  losses.  They  should 
familiarize  themselves  with  an  early  diagnosis  of  abortion  due  to 
Bacterium  abortum  Bang,  and  all  cases  of  abortion  should  be  con- 
sidered to  be  of  this  nature  unless  they  are  definitely  proved  other- 
wise. If  a  laboratory  is  close  at  hand,  the  fetus  and  membranes  can 
be  examined  for  the  presence  of  the  organisms.  The  more  practical 
method  of  ascertaining  definite  knowledge  of  the  presence  of  the 
infection  consists  in  having  the  agglutination  test  applied  to  the 
blood  of  the  suspected  animals. 

Three  distinct  methods  of  procedure  for  controlling  the  disease 
are  outlined  below,  either  one  of  which  may  be  used  alone  in  certain 
selected  cases,  or  they  may  be  combined  to  advantage  when  it  appears 
that  better  results  are  to  be  obtained  thereby.     These  methods  are: 

1.  The  repeated  testing  of  the  entire  herd  by  the  agglutination 
test,  and  the  removal  of  reactors. 

2.  The  isolation  method. 

3.  The  vaccination  method. 

In  average-sized  herds  in  which  the  infection  appears,  blood  should 
be  taken  from  all  the  animals  of  breeding  age,  male  and  female.  In 
case  this  shows  but  a  very  small  percentage  of  infected  animals  and 
other  conditions  are  favorable,  it  is  feasible  to  expect  that  good  results 
will  follow  the  use  of  the  first  method  for  controlling  the  disease. 

Repeated  testing  of  the  entire  herd  by  the  Agglutination  Test,  and 
removal  of  reactors.— Actual  details  of  handling  abortion  under  this 
method  are  rare  in  published  rep'orts.  The  work  of  E.  M.  Robinson61 
in  South  Africa  is  therefore  of  great  interest  in  this  regard.  He 
experimentally  demonstrated  the  feasibility  of  eradicating  the  infec- 
tion from  a  herd  by  this  method.  The  experimental  herd,  consisting 
of  sixty-three  cattle — cows,  heifers,  and  one  bull,  taken  from  a  herd 
of  one  hundred  head — were  taken  to  a  clean  farm.     The  remainder 


284  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

of  the  herd  consisted  of  aborters  and  reactors,  except  for  one  positive 
cow  which,  at  the  time  they  were  moved  in  1915,  gave  a  positive 
agglutination  test  and  was  accidentally  included.  In  January,  1916, 
a  test  was  applied  to  all  the  animals  and  this  cow  and  four  others 
reacted  positively.  These  animals  were  isolated,  and  two  aborted, 
one  was  barren,  and  two  calved  normally  but  the  presence  of  abortion 
organisms  were  demonstrated  in  their  milk. 

Another  agglutination  test  in  March,  1916,  showed  three  more 
reactors.  These  were  removed ;  one  aborted,  one  calved  normally,  and 
one  did  not  breed.  After  this  test,  the  reactors  were  no  longer  isolated 
on  the  farm,  but  removed  to  different  premises. 

A  third  test  of  the  remaining  cattle  was  made  in  May,  1916,  and 
showed  only  one  positive  reactor.  This  cow  was  removed  and  aborted 
in  July  of  the  same  year. 

In  July,  1916,  a  fourth  test  was  applied  to  the  herd  and  showed 
two  reactors.  Both  of  these  cows  were  removed.  One  calved  normally 
and  one  gave  birth  to  a  premature  living  calf.  Bacterium  abortum 
was  isolated  from  the  milk  of  both  animals. 

In  August,  1916,  a  fifth  test  was  made  and  there  were  no  positive 
reactors.  Two  years  later  there  had  still  been  no  positive  reactors 
in  this  herd  or  among  the  clean  herd  into  which  they  were  introduced. 

This  experiment  shows  that  the  animals  reacting  positively  are 
the  most  likely  ones  to  abort  and  rather  frequently  are  giving  off  the 
organisms  from  their  bodies. 

By  the  application  of  five  agglutination  tests  and  the  removal  of 
eleven  head  from  the  herd  of  sixty-three  animals,  over  a  period  of 
about  eight  months,  the  infection  was  eradicated  from  the  herd. 

An  effort  to  apply  this  method  would  be  practical  for  owners  with 
two  or  more  herds  on  different  ranches,  and  for  those  with  a  small 
percentage  of  reactors  where  opportunity  exists  to  raise  young  stock 
to  replace  the  adult  cows,  thus  rendering  outside  purchases  unneces- 
sary. With  the  more  general  application  of  the  agglutination  test 
to  entire  herds  of  cattle,  opportunities  for  demonstrating  the  value  of 
this  plan  will  undoubtedly  present  themselves. 

The  Isolation  Method. — It  is  under  this  plan  that  we  believe  the 
disease  can  be  handled  to  the  best  advantage  in  the  great  majority  of 
herds.  It  is  based  on  our  knowledge  of  the  means  of  escape  of  the 
organisms  from  the  bodies  of  infected  animals  and  consists  in  so 
handling  the  animals  that  the  escaping  organisms  will  have  least 
opportunity  of  gaining  access  to  the  bodies  of  uninfected  animals. 
To  do  this,  isolated  maternity  quarters  must  be  provided  in  which 
animals   about  to   abort   or  calve  normally   are  kept.     They  should 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  285 

preferably  be  provided  with  entirely  separate  stalls,  opening  to  the 
outside  only,  for  individual  animals,  and  should  be  disinfected  or 
fumigated  after  each  animal-  is  removed  from  them.  Bedding,  after- 
birth, and  drainage  from  such  quarters  should  be  burned,  buried, 
or  so  handled  that  cattle  cannot  gain  access  to  them.  Such  animals 
should  be  kept  isolated  from  the  herd  until  all  discharge  from  the 
genital  tract  has  ceased  and,  preferably  until  an  examination  by  a 
veterinarian  shows  the  genital  organs  to  be  in  a  normal  condition. 
This  has  the  double  advantage  of  keeping  the  animals  from  spreading 
infection  and  making  possible  the  recognition  of  abnormal  conditions, 
which  may  thus  be  treated  at  once.  The  earlier  such  conditions  are 
properly  treated,  the  less  is  the  danger  of  the  animal  becoming  per- 
manently sterile.  Even  though  it  is  practically  possible  to  keep  such 
animals  isolated  only  during  the  comparatively  short  period  when 
their  milk  is  unfit  for  commercial  use,  it  will  be  advantageous  to  do  so. 

Calves,  during  the  milk-drinking  period,  should  be  kept  isolated 
from  the  remainder  of  the  herd,  and  manure  from  their  quarters 
should  be  so  handled  that  cattle  cannot  come  in  contact  with  it  or 
their  food  and  water  become  contaminated  by  it. 

Another  source  of  contamination  is  carelessly-handled  milk.  Milk 
house  drainage,  contaminated  with  spilled  milk,  opening  into  irri- 
gation ditches,  or  on  to  green  alfalfa  pasture,  or  alfalfa  cut  and  fed 
green  is  a  possible  source  of  infection  to  well  animals.  During  the 
general  application  of  this  method,  the  buildings  and  surrounding 
premises  should  be  disinfected  weekly,  monthly,  or  quarterly,  depend- 
ing on  the  amount  of  infection  present  and  the  degree  of  completeness 
of  the  isolation  methods  which  practical  conditions  render  possible 
of  maintenance. 

Unbred  heifers  past  the  weaning  age  should  be  kept  isolated,  and, 
particularly,  bred  heifers  should  be  separated  from  adult  cows  during 
the  period  of  pregnancy.  If  only  two  groups  can  be  maintained, 
unbred  and  bred  heifers  should  be  kept  together,  and  separated  from 
the  cows.  The  herd  sire,  if  a  non-reactor,  may  be  used  to  breed  such 
animals  with  comparative  safety  if  they  are  taken  to  neutral  clean 
ground  for  breeding.  Under  these  conditions,  bulls  giving  a  positive 
agglutination  test  should  be  eliminated  from  the  herd.  If  positively 
reacting  high-priced  bulls  must  be  maintained  for  breeding  the 
adult  cows,  they  should  be  kept  corralled  and  given  the  necessary 
exercise  in  the  corral  or  in  such  a  way  that  possibly  infected 
discharges  from  their  genital  tract  will  not  contaminate  the  feed  of 
other  animals  in  the  herd.  Too  great  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  the 
importance  of  this  method  of  handling  abortion.     It  is  the  means  of 


286  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

obtaining  successful  results,  as  has  been  demonstrated  by  field  trials 
in  various  parts  of  the  world  and  particularly  reported  upon  in 
this  country  by  Simms  and  Miller71  in 'Oregon,  and  by  Dick18  and 
Duebler17  in  Pennsylvania. 

The  Vaccination  Method. — Three  bacteriological  products  have 
been  prepared  for  use  in  herds  infected  with  this  disease.  These  are 
dead  abortion  germs  known  under  the  name  of  abortion  bacterins, 
live  abortion  germs  known  as  abortion  vaccine,  and  abortion  serum 
made  from  the  blood  of  cattle  or  horses  immunized  against  Bacterium 
abortum  Bang.  One  other  bacteriological  preparation  known  as 
abortin  should  be  mentioned  here.  This  was  first  prepared  by  McFad- 
yean  and  Stockman  in  England  by  a  method  very  similar  to  the 
method  of  preparing  tuberculin  and  mallein.  It  was  further  studied 
and  its  method  of  preparation  refined  in  this  country  by  Meyer  and 
Hardenbergh47  in  1913.  At  the  present  time  no  definite  field  of 
usefulness  for  this  product  in  the  diagnosis  or  handling  of  abortion 
disease  can  be  recognized. 

Abortion  Bacterin. — The  first  of  these  products  to  be  widely  placed 
on  the  market  was  abortion  bacterin.  It  contained  a  suspension  in 
salt  solution  or  other  fluid  of  abortion  organisms  grown  on  cultures  in 
the  laboratory  and  killed  by  means  of  heat.  This  being  the  first 
bacteriological  product  put  out  for  the  disease,  it  was  exploited  by 
commercial  laboratories  and  was  very  widely  used.  As  was  to  be 
expected,  losses  in  some  herds  stopped  after  it  was  administered,  but 
this  occurs  in  a  certain  percentage  of  outbreaks  when  no  treatment  is 
given.  Carefully  checked  experiments  to  ascertain  its  value  have 
been  carried  out  in  England  and  Germany,  and  by  the  Wisconsin 
and  Michigan  agricultural  experiment  stations  in  this  country.  The 
conclusion  reached  in  all  cases  was  that  no  value  can  be  attributed 
to  the  administration  of  this  product. 

Abortion  Vaccine. — Abortion  vaccine,  consisting  of  live  abortion 
germs,  was  originally  introduced  and  used  experimentally  in  sheep", 
goats,  and  cattle  by  Bang4  who  obtained  definite  protective  results  in 
his  carefully  controlled  experiments.  Later  it  was  studied  extensively 
and  used  in  the  field  by  McFadyean  and  Stockman  of  the  British 
Ministry  of  Agriculture.  It  is  at  present  being  distributed  by  this 
governmental  agency  to  owners  of  live  stock  in  England.  It  is  pro- 
duced commercially  and  distributed  by  a  number  of  firms  manufactur- 
ing biological  products  in  the  United  States. 

Carefully  checked  experiments  by  Hadley25  of  Wisconsin,  Huddle- 
son33  of  Michigan,  and  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  as 
reported  by  Schroeder63,  seem  to  definitely  show  that  its  adminis- 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  287 

tration  is  followed  by  a  lower  incidence  of  abortion  in  the  treated 
than  in  unvaccinated  control  animals.  Thus,  in  Hadley  's  experiments 
of  127  unbred  heifers  vaccinated,  77.9  per  cent  calved  normally  while 
only  66.7  per  cent  of  the  controls  did  so.  The  best  results  were 
obtained  in  open  cows  which  had  never  aborted.  In  this  group  the 
vaccine  was  91.8  per  cent  effective,  which  was  in  marked  contrast  to 
44.4  per  cent  of  normal  carvings  for  the  controls.  In  open  cows  which 
had  aborted,  the  vaccine  was  of  little  value,  and,  as  was  to  be  expected, 
in  cows  which  were  pregnant  at  the  time  of  vaccination  but  had  never 
aborted,  there  was  a  higher  percentage  of  abortions  in  the  vaccinated 
than  in  the  controls.  The  total  vaccinated  cattle  from  which  his 
data  were  obtained  numbered  439  head,  of  which  14.1  per  cent 
aborted,  while  in  the  101  controls  31.2  per  cent  aborted.  The  results 
varied  in  different  groups;  the  highly  favorable  ones  were  obtained 
in  the  group  consisting  of  open  adult  cows  which  had  never  aborted. 
The  vaccinated  cattle  also  showed  a  lower  sterility  rate  and  an 
increased  breeding  efficiency  over  the  controls.  Despite  the  compara- 
tively large  number  of  animals  in  the  experiment,  the  writer  warns 
against  the  danger  of  passing  premature  judgment  on  the  value  of 
any  therapeutic  agent  for  contagious  abortion. 

Huddleson's  experiments  cover  a  much  smaller  number  of  animals 
and  the  animals  were  not  under  such  close  observation,  but  he  con- 
cludes in  regard  to  Herd  A:  "These  data  apparently  indicate  a 
decrease  in  the  abortion  and  sterility  rate  of  the  treated  animals  and 
a  marked  increase  in  the  breeding  efficiency  of  the  treated  over  the 
untreated  animals."  In  regard  to  his  work  on  both  herds  A  and  B 
he  states :  ' '  These  data  while  very  suggestive  are  too  few  to  warrant 
final  conclusions  as  to  the  value  of  vaccine  treatment. ' ' 

Schroeder  's  report  covers  twenty-three  cattle  which  were  part  of  a 
drove  of  sixty-six,  none  of  which,  according  to  the  tests  that  could  be 
made,  was  infected  with  bovine  infectious  abortion.  Eleven  received 
subcutaneous  injection  of  pure  living  cultures  of  Bacterium  abortum 
about  two  months  before  they  were  served  by  the  bull.  Four  received 
repeated  injections  of  killed  cultures  of  the  abortion  organism  after 
they  had  become  pregnant,  and  eight  were  retained  untreated  as 
controls.  The  twenty-three  cattle  were  equally  and  similarly  exposed 
to  abortion  infection.  The  exposure  was  via  the  digestive  tract  and 
the  material  used  was  obtained  from  actual  cases  of  infectious 
abortion.  Of  the  eleven  cows  treated  with  live  organisms  before 
conception,  ten  calved  normally  and  one  aborted;  of  the  four  that 
received  dead  organisms,  two  calved  normally  and  two  aborted; 
seven  of  the  eight  controls  aborted. 


288  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Despite  the  general  concensus  of  opinion  of  investigators  that  the 
vaccine  does  reduce  the  incidence  of  actual  abortion,  and  despite  its 
continued  distribution  by  the  British  Government  over  a  number  of 
years,  the  situation  with  regard  to  each  individual  infected  herd 
should  be  considered  thoroughly  before  this  procedure  is  resorted  to. 
This  method  is  diametrically  opposite  to  that  outlined  in  the  first 
plan.  While  there  are  conditions  in  which  it  is  to  be  recommended, 
they  certainly  do  not  include  any  of  those  herds  which  might  offer 
an  opportunity  to  try  out  the  first  plan.  Neither  is  it  to  be  recom- 
mended for  herds  from  which  animals  are  constantly  being  sold  for 
dairy  or  breeding  purposes  to  go  into  possibly  uninfected  herds. 

In  our  opinion,  owners  are  justified  in  using  this  method  in 
heavily  infected  herds  with  a  high  rate  of  actual  abortions,  when  the 
animals  are  confined  in  corrals  on  small  pieces  of  land  with  no  oppor- 
tunity to  segregate  groups  of  animals  or  raise  young  stock.  Additions 
to  the  herd  from  outside  sources  are  therefore  constantly  necessary, 
and  sales  of  animals  from  such  premises  are  usually  for  immediate 
slaughter. 

Vaccine  treatment  is  the  simplest  method  of  handling  the  disease 
and  therefore  the  one  which  owners  and  veterinarians  are  liable  to 
use  without  full  consideration  of  the  ultimate  results.  It  is  at  best  a 
means  of  reducing  the  manifestations  of  the  disease,  but  does  not 
eliminate  infection  from  the  herd.  Reported  results  from  herds  so 
handled  do  not  give  information  as  to  the  number  of  vaccinated 
animals  which  become  permanent  carriers  of  this  infection,  nor 
mention  subsequent  history  over  a  period  of  years  following  the 
treatment,  which  is  essential  before  this  can  be  recommended,  on  a 
wholesale  scale. 

OUTLINE  OF  VACCINATION  EXPERIMENTS  NOW  BEING  CONDUCTED 

BY  THIS  STATION 

In  order  to  obtain  more  information  in  regard  to  this  method  of 
treatment,  a  portion  of  the  special  abortion  investigation  appropria- 
tion made  at  the  last  session  of  the  legislature  is  being  used  in  the 
following  outlined  experiments  which  are  now  under  way. 

This  investigation  is  designed  to  furnish  information  on  the  im- 
portant and  still  unsettled  question  of  the  actual  value  of  live  abortion 
organisms  in  producing  immunity.  It  is  expected  that  it  will  throw 
additional  light  on  the  localization  of  the  injected  bacteria  and  deter- 
mine whether  or  not  it  is  necessary,  in  the  production  of  immunity  in 
Bacterium  abortum  infection,  to  have  actual  multiplication  and  activ- 
ity of  the  organism  in  the  animal  body,  or  whether  it  is  an  immunity 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  289 

that  is  conferred  upon  an  animal  simply  as  the  result  of  having  been 
infected  with  cultures  of  the  causative  agent. 

It  is  expected  that  this  investigation  will  also  show  the  extent  to 
which  the  infection,  resulting  from  both  the  inoculation  to  produce 
immunity  and  the  ingestion  to  produce  infection,  may  be  injurious 
to  the  animals  infected  and  also  to  animals  associated  with  them. 

The  question  as  to  whether  transmission  of  infection  by  the  bulls, 
from  infected  groups  to  non-infected  check  groups,  is  likely  to  occur 
will  be  of  great  interest. 

There  have  been  purchased  fifty-five  heifers  of  breeding  age  and 
two  young  bulls  known  to  be  free  from  abortion  infection  as 
determined  by  history  and  laboratory  tests.  These  will  be  divided 
into  four  groups: 

Group  1. — Twenty  heifers  to  be  inoculated  subcutaneously  with 
live  Bacterium  abortum  organisms  prepared  after  the  method  used 
in  the  laboratory  of  the  British  Ministry  of  Agriculture.  After  two 
months,  these  animals  are  to  be  bred  by  placing  the  two  bulls  in  the 
pasture  with  them.  These  bulls  will  have  already  served  animals  in 
Group  2.  After  pregnancy  has  been  established,  they  are  to  be 
subjected  to  infection  by  the  ingestion  of  Bacterium  abortum  organ- 
isms. This  is  the  principal  experimental  group  to  determine  the 
efficiency  of  live  abortion  organisms  in  the  prevention  of  abortion. 

Group  2. — Fifteen  animals  to  be  bred  without  any  preliminary 
treatment  by  the  two  bulls  before  they  are  placed  in  Group  1.  Ten 
of  these  animals,  after  pregnancy  has  become  established,  are  to  be 
subjected  to  infection  with  Bacterium  abortum  organisms  in  the 
same  manner  as  Group  1.  Five  are  to  be  kept  as  association  animals 
with  Groups  1  and  2.  This  is  to  be  a  check  on  the  ability  of  our 
infective  methods  to  produce  abortion  and  on  the  control  of  the 
experiment  in  Group  1 ;  also,  an  experiment  with  the  five  head  on  the 
extent  to  which  pregnant  cattle  are  in  danger  of  becoming  infected 
when  exposed  to  aborting  cows. 

Group  3. — Ten  animals  are  to  be  vaccinated  and  bred  at  the  same 
time  and  in  the  same  manner  as  Group  1,  but  not  to  receive  any 
further  treatment  until  after  parturition.  This  group  is  to  be 
examined  after  parturition  for  the  presence  of  Bacterium  abortum 
in  the  milk  as  a  result  of  the  vaccination.  Some  or  all  of  these  animals 
may  be  slaughtered  after  the  milk  examination  is  completed  and 
attempts  made  to  isolate  Bacterium  abortum  from  the  internal  organs. 

Group  4. — Ten  animals,  five  of  which  are  to  be  bred,  without 
previous  treatment,  by  the  bulls  after  they  have  served  the  animals 
in  Groups  1,  2  and  3.  We  intend  to  have  the  other  five  animals  left 
open  so  that  in  case  opportunity  offers,  the  bulls  can  serve  them 
shortly  after  having  served  an  aborting  cow.  This  group,  therefore, 
is  to  be  a  check  on  the  bulls  which  have  served  vaccinated  or  recently 
aborting  cows  acting  as  carriers  to  non-infected  females  through  the 
medium  of  copulation. 


290  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 

As  an  aid  to  the  field  observations  on  these  four  groups,  laboratory 
tests  of  the  blood  of  the  fifty-five  animals  will  be  made  at  frequent 
intervals. 

The  germs  used  for  infecting  the  thirty  animals  are  to  be  obtained 
from  such  sources  as  will  constitute,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  means 
of  spreading  the  organism  from  the  carrier  of  the  infection,  such  as 
the  milk  of  several  cows  infected  with  Bacterium  abortum  and  aborted 
fetuses  containing  the  organism.  Bacterium  abortum  of  known  viru- 
lence from  laboratory  cultures  will  also  be  given. 

During  this  experiment,  bacteriological  examination  of  aborted 
fetuses  from  various  ranches  will  be  made.  It  is  the  intention  in 
this  work  to  examine  approximately  one  hundred  fetuses  in  order  to 
ascertain  the  frequency  in  this  section  of  the  country  with  which 
Bacterium  abortum  Bang  or  other  organisms  are  associated  with  the 
premature  expulsion  of  the  young.  In  this  way,  it  will  be  possible 
to  keep  in  constant  touch  with  a  source  of  supply  of  infective  material 
of  various  kinds. 

Abortion  Serum. — If  this  material  has  any  immunizing  value  it  is 
of  a  passive  nature  and  will  not  last  for  a  longer  period  than  a  few 
weeks.  Recently  a  theoretical  field  of  usefulness  for  it  has  been 
brought  forward  in  combination  with  dead  abortion  germs  for  safely 
carrying  animals  in  infected  herds  through  the  latter  months  of 
pregnancy.  No  checked  evidence  is  at  hand  to  show  that  it  has  any 
value  in  this  connection.  Its  field  of  usefulness  under  our  present 
knowledge  is  restricted  to  very  narrow  limits. 


ABOKTION  A  SELF-LIMITING  DISEASE 
Despite  the  excessive  losses  it  causes  to  the  live  stock  industry  and 
the  widespread  distribution  of  this  infection,  the  fact  should  always 
be  kept  in  mind  that  from  the  standpoint  of  the  individual  herd  it 
is  a  self -limiting  disease.  This  is  due  to  the  gradual  acquiring  of  a 
tolerance  or  immunity  to  the  particular  strain  of  the  organism,  and, 
provided  no  new  infection  is  added  from  the  outside,  it  will  cease 
to  produce  its  manifestations  over  a  varying  period  of  time  even 
though  no  special  precautions  are  taken  to  limit  its  ravages.  The 
period  of  time  required  for  this  varies  greatly  and  is  apparently 
longer  in  dairy  herds  than  in  beef  herds.  The  latter  are  the  class 
of  herds  where  isolation  methods  are  the  most  difficult  to  carry  out. 
In  such  cases  advantage  should  be  taken  of  the  natural  production  of 
immunity,  and  it  is  believed  that  this  may  be  hastened  by  selection 
and  breeding  in  such  a  way  that  animals  which  breed  normally  in 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  291 

spite  of  the  presence  of  the  infection  and  those  which  develop 
immunity  after  one  abortion  can  be  kept  for  breeding.  Those  that 
are  seriously  affected  by  the  disease  and  have  retained  afterbirth  or 
abort  a  second  time,  or  are  difficult  to  get  with  calf  and  so  on,  may  be 
culled  out.  Observations  made  by  Potter57,  in  Kansas,  on  range  cattle 
are  particularly  interesting  in  this  regard. 

Herd  immunity  has  been  observed  by  all  students  of  this  disease 
in  the  field  and  its  development  is  the  reason  that  so  many  worthless 
substances  have  acquired  a  reputation  as  curative  agents.  In  a  large 
number  of  herds  it  is  prevented  from  manifesting  itself  by  the  con- 
stant bringing  in  of  fresh  infection  with  the  purchase  of  outside 
animals. 

In  the  certified  dairies  around  the  San  Francisco  Bay  region  there 
are  at  present  about  1800  head  of  dairy  cattle.  In  order  to  keep  out 
tuberculosis,  it  has  been  the  practice  for  the  past  seven  or  eight 
years  to  raise  sufficient  young  stock  in  these  dairies  to  replace  the 
old  cows,  which  has  reduced  the  purchase  of  outside  cattle  to  a 
minimum.  This  has  automatically  reduced  losses  from  abortion  to  a 
point  where  it  is  of  little  financial  significance. 

Therefore  the  presence  of  the  disease  to  a  severe  extent  in  any 
particular  herd  where  practical  conditions  render  it  impossible  to 
introduce  the  recognized  control  measures  should  not  necessarily 
cause  the  owner  to  hastily  consign  all  the  animals  to  slaughter.  In 
some  instances  where  the  disease  appeared  in  very  virulent  and 
widespread  form,  it  has  been  known  to  clear  up  to  a  remarkable 
extent  over  a  period  of  a  single  year.  In  the  progress  of  the  disease 
in  a  herd  a  certain  percentage  of  animals  are  left  temporarily  or 
permanently  sterile,  which  greatly  adds  to  the  financial  loss  it  causes. 


SUMMARY   AND    CONCLUSIONS 

The  localization  of  Bacterium  dbortum  Bang  in  the  bodies  of 
infected  bovine  animals  and  the  means  by  which  it  leaves  the  body 
are  fairly  well  understood. 

A  knowledge  of  these  fundamental  facts  is  essential  on  the  part 
of  live  stock  owners  to  prevent  infection  from  getting  into  the  herd 
and  to  control  it  after  it  has  gained  access. 

The  agglutination  and  complement  fixation  tests,  although  they 
have  their  limitations,  are  important  factors  in  furnishing  informa- 
tion in  regard  to  the  status  of  individual  animals  and  particularly 
individual  herds  in  regard  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  infection 
and  the  amount  of  same. 


292  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

The  greatest  source  of  infection  with  the  disease  and  the  means 
by  which  it  is  introduced  into  herds  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases 
is  the  addition  of  infected  cattle.  Other  more  remote  means  exist 
but  they  always  involve  the  contamination  of  surroundings  with 
discharges  from  infected  cattle  and  the  transportation  of  the  con- 
taminated material  to  a  point  where  cattle  gain  access  to  it  without  in 
the  meantime  exposing  it  to  conditions  that  will  destroy  the  organisms. 
Food  and  water  supply  are  the  great  vehicles  for  so  transporting  the 
infectious  agent. 

Animals  purchased  from  outside  sources  and  community  pasture 
or  ranges  are  always  a  potential  clanger  of  the  introduction  of  the 
disease.  Depending  on  the  practical  conditions  involved,  danger 
from  this  source  may  be  more  or  less  completely  eliminated. 

When  infection  gains  access  to  the  herd  definite  information  is  at 
hand  on  the  means  to  be  taken  to  limit  the  losses  from  its  presence. 

Isolation  methods  of  dealing  with  the  disease  are  first  to  be 
recommended. 

While  under  certain  conditions  the  use  of  live  abortion  germ 
vaccine  can  be  recommended  after  due  consideration  of  all  the  factors 
involved,  this  course  of  procedure  should  not  be  adopted  by  owners 
without  full  knowledge  of  the  facts  and  possible  consequences. 

The  use  of  dead  abortion  germs  is  very  generally  believed  to  be 
worthless. 

Less  is  known  regarding  the  possible  value  of  abortion  serum, 
but  it  is  not  probable  that  it  will  ever  take  an  important  place  as  a 
means  of  controlling  or  preventing  this  disease. 

The  disease  in  any  herd  is  self -limiting  provided  new  infection  is 
not  constantly  added  and  in  a  high  percentage  of  herds  will  in  time 
be  reduced  to  a  minimum  even  though  very  meager  precautions  are 
taken  against  it.  This  important  fact  renders  it  unwise  to  quickly 
dispose  of  whole  herds  of  cattle  because  the  infection  is  present  in 
them. 

In  range  cattle  the  self-limiting  aspect  of  the  disease  seems  to  be 
more  noticeable  or  manifests  itself  more  quickly  than  in  high-pro- 
ducing, closely-housed  dairy  herds. 

Bulls  containing  Bacterium  abortum  in  their  discharges,  while 
they  may  not  infect  cows  during  the  act  of  copulation,  are  neverthe- 
less spreaders  of  the  bacteria  contained  in  their  discharges. 


Bulletin  353 


BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION 


293 


Fig.  1. — Non-pregnant  genital  tract  of  the  cow. 

1.  Left  ovary  and  broad  ligament.  2.  Eight  ovary.  3.  Fallopian  tube. 
4.  Horn  of  the  uterus.  5.  Corpus  luteum  protruding  from  ovary.  6.  Vagina. 
7.  Horn  of  uterus  opened.  8.  Body  of  uterus  and  internal  os.  9.  External 
os.     Cervical  canal  between  8  and  9. 


294  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 

II 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  BACTERIUM  ABORTUM 

OF  BANG  AND  OTHER  MICROORGANISMS 

IN  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION 

By  JACOB  TKAUM 


The  abortion  disease  of  cattle  is  rather  universally  accepted  as 
being  caused  by  an  infection.  Other  agents,  nevertheless,  have  been 
and  are  being  held  responsible  for  the  production  of  abortion  in  these 
animals.  Principal  among  these  are  mechanical  injuries  and  con- 
sumption of  moldy,  ergotized  or  otherwise  spoiled  food.  Recently  the 
lack  of  certain  vitamins  and  failure  to  maintain  the  proper  mineral 
balance  especially  in  high-producing  cows  have  been  suggested  as 
contributing  causes  to  abortion  and  other  reproductive  disturbances. 
Part  II  of  this  bulletin  discusses  the  causes  of  the  infectious  type  of 
bovine  abortion;  the  other  forms  of  abortion  will  be  discussed  in 
Part  III. 

In  this,  as  in  other  infections,  more  than  one  manifestation  of 
disease  is  produced,  and  one  or  more  of  these  may  be  present;  and 
while  in  the  infection  under  consideration,  the  premature  expulsion 
of  the  fetus  is  the  most  outstanding  manifestation  of  its  presence, 
the  abortion,  nevertheless,  does  not  always  occur.  This  is  fully  recog- 
nized, and  practically  every  definition  of  bovine  infectious  abortion,* 
as  the  disease  is  now  termed,  includes  other  evidences  of  the  existence 
of  the  infection.  The  report  of  the  committee  on  abortion  of  the 
American  Veterinary  Medical  Association59  contains  the  following 
definition:  "Bovine  infectious  abortion  is  characterized  as  a  rule 
by  an  interference  with  the  development  of  the  fetus,  frequently 
resulting  in  its  premature  expulsion,  either  dead  or  alive,  viable  or 
unviable.  There  is  also  a  frequent  inflammation  of  the  fetal  mem- 
branes and  of  the  maternal  cotyledons  together  with  frequent  reten- 
tion of  the  afterbirth.  A  cow  may  be  the  carrier  and  disseminator  of 
the  germs  of  the  disease  without  showing  symptoms  of  her  dangerous 
condition. ' ' 


*This  disease  has  been  known  as  contagious,  infectious,  or  epizootic  abortion, 
abortion  disease,  and  slinking  of  the  calves;  the  name  bovine  infectious  abortion 
has  been  suggested  by  the  committee  on  abortion  of  the  American  Veterinary 
Medical  Association. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  295 

This,  in  substance,  is  the  definition  of  the  disease  given  by  most 
writers  on  the  subject  and  with  few  exceptions  they  also  consider 
that  the  infectious  type  of  abortion  is  caused  principally  by  the 
Bacterium  abortum  of  Bang.  The  above  mentioned  report  states 
that  "The  essential  cause  of  bovine  infectious  abortion  is  Bacterium 
abortus  (Bang)."  E.  C.  Schroeder63,  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  in  a  paper  presented  at  the  Twenty-fifth  Annual  Meeting 
of  the  U.  S.  Livestock  Sanitary  Association,  states:  "The  prime 
etiological  factor  of  bovine  infectious  abortion  was  discovered  by 
Bang  and  Stribolt."  Simms  and  Miller,71  of  the  Oregon  Experi- 
ment Station,  in  a  report  of  experiments  with  this  disease,  state: 
"The  conclusion  has  been  reached  that  Bacillus  abortus  (Bang)  is  the 
principal  cause  of  abortion  among  Oregon  cattle."  The  term  'infec- 
tious abortion'  as  used  in  this  paper  will  refer  to  infection  with  this 
organism.  Practically  all  textbooks,  such  as  Hutyra  and  Marek's 
"Special  Pathology  and  Therapeutics  of  Diseases  of  Domestic  Ani- 
mals," Hoare's  "System  of  Veterinary  Medicine,"  Ostertag  and 
Zwick  in  Kolle  and  Wassermann's  "Handuch  der  Pathogenen 
Microorganismen, "  accept  the  Bang  organism  as  the  essential  cause 
in  infectious  abortion  of  cattle. 

On  the  other  hand,  Moussu52  while  admitting  that  the  Bacterium 
abortum  of  Bang  may  be  responsible  for  contagious  abortion,  never- 
theless insists  that  an  entirely  different  bacillus  belonging  to  the 
paracoli  group  causes  a  large  proportion  of  abortions ;  especially  did 
he  find  this  so  in  France.  W.  L.  Williams,  of  the  New  York  State 
Veterinary  College  at  Cornell  University,  and  some  of  his  colleagues, 
even  though  firm  believers  in  the  infectious  nature  of  abortion,  have 
persistently  refused  to  accept  Bacterium  abortum  as  the  proved 
principal  cause  of  infectious  abortion  in  cattle,  and  a  considerable 
part  of  Williams'  writings  are  given  up  to  a  discussion  of  the  experi- 
ments presented  as  evidence  to  prove  that  Bacterium  abortum  of  Bang 
is  the  principal  cause  of  the  infection;  and  in  his  latest  writings84 
states:  "It  has  not  been  determined  what,  if  any,  effect  upon  the 
reproductive  efficiency  of  a  herd  the  elimination  of  Bacterium  abortus 
infection  would  cause." 


296  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


REVIEW  OF  THE  INVESTIGATIONS  BEARING  ON  THE  CAUSE  OF 
INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  OF  CATTLE 

To  properly  discuss  and  evaluate  the  results  of  investigational 
work  which  have  a  bearing  on  the  causative  agent  of  bovine  infectious 
abortion  requires  the  presentation  of  details.  This  will  be  done  to 
the  extent  that  space  and  importance  of  the  work  warrant. 

The  first  report  of  well-organized  attempts  to  isolate  a  definite 
bacterial  causative  agent  of  abortion  is  written  by  No  card53,  who  at 
the  instigation  of  the  French  Government  investigated  this  disease  in 
1885.  Nocard  gave  a  very  thorough  description  of  the  pathological 
findings,  and  incriminated  as  the  possible  causes  a  coccus  and  a  short 
bacillus,  which  he  found  in  the  exudate  between  the  uterus  and  the 
chorion,  the  outer  covering  of  the  fetus.  With  neither  of  these 
organisms,  however,  did  he  produce  the  disease. 

In  1897,  Bang3  reported  the  results  of  investigations  by  himself 
and  Striboldt,  in  which  they  discovered  the  organism  now  known  as 
Bacterium  abortum.  A  cow  showing  evidence  of  approaching  abor- 
tion was  purchased  and  slaughtered.  An  elastic  ligature  was  tied 
around  the  vagina,  and  the  specimen*  reached  the  laboratory  six  hours 
after  slaughter.  Using  every  precaution  to  eliminate  extraneous 
organisms,  they  found  in  the  exudate  between  the  uterus  and  the 
chorion  a  very  small  organism  which  appeared  to  be  in  pure  culture. 
These  organisms  were  found  as  individuals,  also  crowded  together  in 
masses,  and  frequently  enclosed  in  cells.  The  investigators  at  first 
thought  the  organism  was  a  coccus,  but  on  more  careful  examination 
with  a  higher  power  glass,  the  bacillary  nature  of  the  organism  was 
definitely  demonstrated.  In  shake  cultures,  consisting  of  gelatin, 
agar,  and  serum,  they  found  a  growth  developing  in  a  definite  zone, 
beginning  about  5  mm.  beneath  the  surface  of  the  medium  and  extend- 
ing downward  from  10  to  15  mm.  They  further  found  that  the 
organism  grew  also  in  an  atmosphere  of  very  high  oxygen  tension. 

In  the  course  of  time  they  examined  twenty-one  specimens  includ- 
ing pieces  of  afterbirth,  uterine  exudate,  and  aborted  fetuses.  In 
almost  all  cases  of  uterine  exudate,  microscopic  examination  demon- 
strated the  presence  of  the  organism,  but  always  contaminated  with 
other  organisms.  They  succeeded,  however,  in  obtaining  pure  colonies 
of  the  organism  by  subculturing  during  the  cold  time  of  the  year  in 
the  specimens  received.  In  three  cases  where  fetuses  were  sent  in, 
they  obtained  pure  culture  of  the  germ  from  the  small  intestines 
without  any  evidence  of  other  bacteria.     In  one  case  they  were  able 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  297 

to  obtain  the  organism  also  from  the  blood  and  in  another  from  the 
blood,  stomach,  and  medulla  oblongata.  In  two  cases  of  mummified 
fetuses  of  five  and  nine  months'  standing,  respectively,  they  obtained 
pure  cultures  of  Bacterium  abortum  in  each  case. 

Having  repeatedly  found  Bacterium  abortum,  and  having  been 
able  to  obtain  it  in  pure  culture,  they  next  set  out  to  produce  the 
disease  in  order  to  definitely  demonstrate  that  it  was  the  cause  of 
infectious  abortion  in  cattle.  Four  cows  bought  in  the  stockyards  of 
Copenhagen  were  used  for  this  purpose.  Two  of  them  received 
intravaginal  inoculations  of  cultures.  After  nineteen  and  twenty- 
nine  days,  respectively,  these  animals  showed  no  evidence  of  the 
disease.  They  were  slaughtered  and  the  autopsies  were  negative. 
Into  the  vaginas  of  the  other  two  cows  were  placed  pieces  of  retained 
afterbirth.  Thirty-three  and  thirty-five  days  afterward,  respectively, 
these  animals  were  slaughtered  and  autopsy  findings  again  were 
negative.  Bang  explained  the  cause  of  his  failures  as  being  possibly 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  animals  used  in  the  experiment  were  of 
unknown  history  and  might  have  previously  aborted  and  therefore 
may  have  been  immune.  Further,  the  reason  these  animals  were 
killed  so  soon  after  injection  was  because  the  work  of  Brauer,  Len- 
hert,  and  Trinchera  indicated  that  the  period  of  incubation  for  intra- 
vaginal inoculation  of  abortion  material  is  from  nine  to  twenty-one 
days. 

About  this  time  the  work  of  the  Committee  of  the  Highland  Agri- 
cultural Society  of  Scotland  was  brought  to  the  notice  of  Bang 
through  the  article  on  "Epizootic  Abortion"  by  Pemberthy;  in  this 
the  report  of  the  Committee  indicated  that  the  period  of  incubation 
with  sheep  and  cattle  was  from  five  and  one-half  to  ten  weeks.  Bang 
and  his  co-workers  purchased  two  cows  from  a  territory  where  abor- 
tion was  unknown.  When  these  cows  were  three  months  pregnant, 
they  were  inoculated  intravaginally  with  a  culture  of  the  Bang  organ- 
ism. Thirty-nine  days  later  they  were  again  given  an  intravaginal 
injection,  and  twelve  days  from  the  second  injection  they  were  given 
a  third  intravaginal  injection  of  culture.  Seventy-one  days  after 
the  first  injection,  one  of  the  cows  aborted.  Six  hours  after  the 
abortion,  the  afterbirth  was  examined  and  cultured,  and  from  this 
Bacterium  abortum  was  isolated.  Cultures  and  smears  also  showed 
the  presence  of  micrococci.  The  second  cow  was  slaughtered  on  the 
same  day  while  showing  symptoms  of  approaching  abortion.  Abor- 
tion bacilli  were  obtained  in  pure  culture  from  the  exudate.  Another 
cow  suffering  from  pyelonephritis  was  given  an  intravaginal  inocula- 
tion of  culture  of  Bacterium  abortum  on  January  19,  1897,  and  on 


298  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

March  6  was  given  a  subcutaneous  inoculation  of  culture.  Eighty 
days  after  the  first  inoculation  a  premature  but  living  calf  was 
dropped.  The  calf  died  from  dysentery  at  fourteen  days.  Bacterium 
dbortum  was  obtained  in  the  uterine  exudate.  Bang  concluded  that 
this  was  a  case  of  uterine  catarrh  produced  by  the  inoculated 
organism. 

On  June  12,  1897,  Bang4  inoculated  36  c.c.  of  a  bouillon  serum 
culture  of  the  germ  intravenously  into  a  four-year-old  cow  in  her 
fourth  month  of  pregnancy.  Three  months  later  this  animal  aborted 
and  the  exudate  contained  abortion  bacilli.  This  animal,  Bang  states, 
came  from  a  farm  where  abortion  did  not  exist.  An  eight-year-old 
cow  from  an  uninfected  environment  received  on  June  12,  1897  a 
culture  of  Bacterium  dbortum  and  on  September  7,  abortion  exudate 
by  mouth.  On  November  26,  she  gave  birth  to  a  small  living  calf, 
terminating  a  pregnancy  which  started  March  14,  1897.  The  after- 
birth was  covered  with  abortion  exudate,  rich  in  bacilli.  Bang  states 
that  he  was  able  by  intravenous  inoculation  to  produce  abortion  in 
cows,  sheep,  goats,  and  rabbits. 

In  1902,  Preisz58  of  Budapest,  Hungary,  reported  the  finding  of 
Bacterium  dbortum  in  vaginal  discharge  forwarded  to  him  for  examin- 
ation. In  one  case  the  discharge  was  collected  eleven  days  and  in 
another,  fourteen  days  after  abortion.  His  photograph  of  the  shake 
culture,  the  coagulation  of  the  milk,  and  the  successful  growing  of 
the  organism  by  the  sodium  hydroxide-pyrogallic  acid  method  makes 
the  germ  a  doubtful  Bacterium  dbortum.  This  may  account  for  his 
inability  to  produce  abortion  in  two  pregnant  cattle  by  intravenous 
and  intravaginal  injection.  He  was  also  unable  to  produce  abortion 
in  guinea  pigs  inoculated  intravenously,  intraperitoneally,  subcutane- 
ously,  and  intravaginally. 

In  1908,  Nowak56  of  Austria,  reported  results  of  a  bacteriological 
study  of  the  Bacterium  dbortum  of  Bang,  in  which  he  made  a  valuable 
contribution,  especially  in  the  method  of  isolating  this  organism  from 
bacteriological  material.  In  brief,  his  method  consisted  of  smearing 
the  specimen  on  agar  plate  to  which  had  been  added  one  quarter  of 
its  volume  of  sterile  serum.  This  plate  was  incubated  for  twenty-four 
hours;  at  the  end  of  that  time  all  the  colonies  were  marked  and  the 
plates  placed  in  a  jar  which  contained  a  culture  of  Bacillus  subtilis. 
One  square  centimeter  was  provided  for  every  15  c.c.  capacity  of  the 
jar.  The  jar  was  sealed  and  placed  in  the  incubator  for  three  days. 
Material  which  yielded  negative  results  by  the  Bang  method 
frequently  gave  positive  results  with  Nowak 's  method.  By  sub- 
cutaneous,  intravenous,    and   intraperitoneal   injection,    Nowak   was 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  299 

able  to  produce  abortion  in  guinea  pigs  and  in  rabbits.  By  feeding 
and  by  intravaginal  inoculation,  his  results  were  negative. 

In  1909,  McFadyean  and  Stockman42,  reporting  for  the  committee 
appointed  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  to  inquire 
into  epizootic  abortion  in  Great  Britain,  gave  the  results  of  work 
started  in  December,  1905.  In  the  course  of  their  investigations  they 
isolated  an  organism  which  satisfied  the  morphologic  and  biologic 
characteristics  of  Bacterium  abortum,  differing,  however,  with  respect 
to  the  optimum  growth  requirements  set  forth  by  Bang.  McFadyean 
and  Stockman  at  times  succeeded  in  growing  the  organism  directly 
on  sloped  medium,  and  in  shake  cultures  the  growth  was  always 
limited  to  the  zone  described  by  Bang  but  might  appear  on  the  surface 
and  in  the  water  of  condensation.  Comparisons  with  cultures  furn- 
ished them  by  Bang  convinced  the  English  investigators  that  they  had 
isolated  the  Bang  organism. 

In  their  experimental  work  they  inoculated  twenty-eight  heifers, 
as  follows:  Intravaginally :  Six  heifers  with  natural  material  and 
three  with  cultures.  Of  the  former,  three  were  positive  and  three 
were  negative ;  of  the  latter,  two  were  positive  and  one  non-pregnant. 
Per  os:  Four  heifers,  inoculated  with  natural  material.  Two  were 
positive,  one  negative,  and  one  non-pregnant.  One  heifer,  inoculated 
with  culture  per  os,  was  positive.  Subcutaneously :  Four,  inoculated 
with  natural  material.  Two  were  positive  and  two  negative.  One 
animal  was  inoculated  with  culture  and  proved  to  be  positive.  Intra- 
venously :  Two  animals  were  inoculated  with  natural  material  and 
seven  with  cultures.  Of  the  former,  one  was  positive  and  one  non- 
pregnant; of  the  latter,  all  were  positive. 

Summarizing  the  results  of  these  experiments,  it  is  noted  that  out 
of  sixteen  animals  inoculated  with  natural  materials,  eight  were  posi- 
tive, six  negative,  and  two  non-pregnant.  Of  the  twelve  inoculated 
with  cultures,  eleven  were  positive  and  one  non-pregnant.  Of  the 
nineteen  positives,  seven  actually  aborted,  one  gave  birth  to  a  weak 
calf  three  weeks  ahead  of  time,  two  were  killed  while  showing  signs 
of  approaching  abortion,  nine  were  killed  at  various  intervals  after 
inoculation  and  showed  the  abortion  exudate.  In  all  cases  they 
claimed  to  have  demonstrated  the  presence  of  Bacterium  abortum. 

McFadyean  and  Stockman  desired  to  determine  the  extent  in 
which  this  infection  was  present  in  England,  and  in  the  course  of  a 
survey  they  examined  the  stomach  contents  of  fifty-one  fetuses  and 
found  twenty-two  positive  and  twenty-nine  negative  for  Bacterium 
abortum.  Thirty-five  fetal  membranes  were  examined  of  which  thirty- 
three  were  found  positive  and  two  negative;  the  latter  two  were 


300  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

reported  too  putrid  for  examination.  Forty-two  swabs  of  vaginal 
discharge  were  examined;  twenty-nine  were  found  positive  and 
thirteen  negative.  The  diagnosis  in  all  cases  was  based  entirely  upon 
the  microscopic  examination  of  the  material. 

In  1913,  Zwick  and  Zeller91  reported  the  work  undertaken  by  the 
German  Imperial  Board  of  Health  on  a  study  of  the  infectious 
abortion  of  cattle  in  Germany.  The  report  includes  work  done  from 
December  1908  to  December  1911.  Their  first  problem  was  to  deter- 
mine whether  or  not  the  organism  described  by  Bang  was  responsible 
for  infectious  abortion  present  in  Germany.  To  that  end  they  exam- 
ined fifty-two  aborted  fetuses,  nine  prematurely-born  calves,  eighteen 
afterbirths,  two  uteri,  and  one  vaginal  discharge.  Of  the  fifty-two 
fetuses,  thirty-five  proved  positive  for  the  Bang  organism.  In  thirty 
out  of  the  thirty-five  cases  Bacterium  abortum  was  obtained  in  pure 
culture,  but  the  five  other  cases  were  contaminated,  two  with  Bac- 
terium coli,  two  with  streptococci,  and  one  with  Bacterium  proteus. 
Regarding  the  seventeen  negative  cases,  the  investigators  report  that 
five  had  histories  which  indicated  a  doubtful  presence  of  infectious 
abortion.  Examination  of  these  five  yielded  three  sterile  cases  and 
two  which  contained  Bacterium  coli  in  pure  and  mixed  cultures. 
Cultures  from  seven  other  negative  fetuses  remained  sterile  although 
the  histories  and  serum  tests  from  the  dams  indicated  Bacterium 
abortum  infection.  One  fetus  yielded  sterile  cultures  although  its 
history  indicated  infection.  Two  negative  fetuses  showed  on  micro- 
scopic examination  Bacterium  abortum-like  organisms  but  the  cultures 
were  sterile.     One  negative  case  yielded  Bacillus  pyogenes* 

Of  the  nine  prematurely-born  calves,  two  yielded  sterile  cultures 
and  seven  coli  organisms,  of  which  six  were  in  pure  culture  and  one 
with  a  coccus. 

In  the  eighteen  afterbirths  examined,  the  results  show  five  positive 
for  Bacterium  abortum  and  thirteen  negative  for  that  organism. 
Four  of  the  positive  ones  were  of  mixed  cultures  and  one  proved 
positive  after  the  intravaginal  inoculation  of  sheep.  Of  the  thirteen 
negative  ones,  six  were  badly  decomposed  and  seven  showed  mixed 
cultures  mostly  of  Bacterium  coli  and  cocci.  One  uterus  from  a  cow 
slaughtered  before  abortion  took  place  yielded  organisms  of  Bacterium 
abortum  in  pure  cultures.  The  other  uterus  was  from  a  cow  that  had 
aborted  four  weeks  previously  and  was  negative.  The  one  vaginal 
discharge  examined  yielded  negative  results ;  it  was  from  a  cow  which 
had  aborted  twenty  days  previously. 


*  According  to  Brown  and  Orcutt7  this  organism  belongs  to  the  corynebacteria, 
but  since  this  change  has  not  as  yet  been  adopted  by  the  Society  of  American 
Bacteriologists,  it  has  not  been  made  here. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  301 

Zwick  and  Zeller  confined  their  animal  inoculations  to  sheep, 
goats,  guinea  pigs,  and  rabbits,  and  obtained  positive  results  in  a 
very  large  percentage  by  introducing  the  organism  into  the  vagina, 
subcutis,  peritoneum,  and  mouth. 

In  twenty-four  aborted  fetuses,  Holth32  obtained  cultures  of  Bac- 
terium abortum  from  the  gastro-intestinal  contents  of  nineteen  cases. 
In  sixteen  of  the  nineteen,  no  other  organisms  were  found.  Two  of 
the  nineteen  fetuses  yielded  cultures  of  Bacterium  abortum  from  the 
blood.  From  one  of  the  five  cases  in  which  the  Bang  organism  was 
not  found,  a  pure  culture  of  Bacillus  pyogenes  was  recovered. 

In  the  last  decade  much  literature  on  infectious  abortion  of  cattle 
has  been  published  both  in  America  and  elsewhere,  and  some  of  it 
contains  findings  that  have  an  important  bearing  on  the  point  in 
question.  Prior  to  that  time  very  little  work  had  been  done  on  the 
etiology  of  this  disease.  Chester14  of  the  Delaware  Experiment  Sta- 
tion reports  a  study  of  a  herd  in  which  eight  cows  aborted.  From 
that  herd  he  was  able  to  obtain  a  piece  of  placenta,  removed  by  hand, 
from  which  he  made  cultures  on  agar  slants.  He  obtained  one  rapidly- 
growing  organism  and  a  second  slower-growing  one  which  he  identi- 
fied as  the  colon  organism,  and  which  at  that  time  he  thought  the 
possible  cause  of  the  disease.  A  pregnant  cow  was  given  5  c.c.  of  a 
bouillon  culture  of  the  organism  through  the  vagina  and  no  ill  effects 
resulted. 

In  1904,  Moore50  reported  work  done  by  Law  and  himself  in 
1897-98,  in  which  they  found  bacteria  belonging  to  the  colon  group, 
in  fetal  membranes,  cotyledons,  and  uterine  discharge  in  a  fresh 
condition  from  seven  cases  of  infectious  abortion.  Other  bacteria 
present  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  were  bacilli,  micrococci,  and  strep- 
tococci. He  states,  "Its  power  to  produce  abortion  was  tested  in  a 
few  cases  on  pregnant  cows,  all  of  which  delivered  their  calves  at 
full  term.  We  have  no  experimental  evidence,  therefore,  that  this 
organism  stands  in  a  causal  relation  to  the  trouble." 

The  first  investigators  to  isolate  and  identify  Bacterium  abortum 
as  being  responsible  for  abortion  in  cattle  in  this  country  were  McNeal 
and  Kerr43' 44  in  1910.  They  examined  afterbirths  and  discharges 
from  seventeen  cows,  ten  of  which  were  term  deliveries,  and  in  these 
the  abortion  organism  was  not  found.  Seven  were  premature  deliver- 
ies, and  of  these  one  was  not  clinically  an  abortion  case.  Two  of  the 
six  abortion  cases  were  examined  before  they  adopted  the  Nowak 
plate  method  and  negative  results  were  obtained.  Of  the  remaining 
four,  two  gave  positive  cultures  of  Bacterium  abortum.  In  the  third 
case  only  a  small  bit  of  the  afterbirth  was  available  for  examination, 


302  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

and  in  the  fourth  a  small  quantity  of  vaginal  discharge  which  had 
been  picked  up  from  the  ground.  They  inoculated  four  pregnant 
guinea  pigs  subcutaneously  with  culture  isolated  from  these  cases; 
premature  evacuation  of  the  uterus  resulted,  with  death  of  the  fetuses 
after  three  and  a  half,  eight,  six,  and  seven  days,  respectively.  In 
the  first  pig  two  fetuses  were  practically  fully  developed  and  covered 
with  hair.  In  this  instance  Bacterium  abortum  was  isolated  only 
from  the  subcutaneous  tissue  of  the  mother  at  the  point  of  inocula- 
tion. In  the  other  three  cases,  the  fetuses  were  undeveloped  and 
the  condition  was  that  of  true  abortion.  In  these  instances  the  abor- 
tion organism  was  demonstrated  at  the  point  of  inoculation,  and  in 
the  interior  of  the  uterus  in  pure  culture  in  all  three.  McNeal  and 
Kerr  stated,  "From  this  rather  limited  series  of  examinatijons  we 
may  conclude  that  the  bacillus  of  Bang  is  the  microbic  cause  of  at 
least  some  of  the  contagious  abortion  of  cattle  in  this  country." 

In  1912,  Good24  of  the  Kentucky  Experiment  Station,  reported 
having  obtained  pure  cultures  of  Bacterium  abortum  from  discharges 
and  fetal  membranes  of  aborting  cows. 

Surface80,  in  1913,  reported  the  following  experimental  infection : 
A  cow  which  had  never  aborted  came  from  a  herd  in  which  abortion 
did  not  exist.  She  had  been  tested  several  times  by  the  agglutination 
and  complement  fixation  tests,  always  with  negative  results.  When 
about  five  months  pregnant,  she  received  20  c.c.  of  Bacterium  abortum 
culture,  on  November  25,  1912,  and  aborted  on  January  6,  1913, 
fifty-two  days  after  the  inoculation.  The  cultures  used  were  obtained 
from  Denmark  and  grown  aerobically.  Cultures  were  recovered  from 
the  afterbirth  and  fetal  stomach  in  twenty-four  hours,  both  in  plates 
according  to  the  Nowak  method,  and  also  in  plates  kept  in  the  incu- 
bator under  ordinary  atmospheric  condition.  This  very  rapid  growth 
under  ordinary  atmospheric  condition  is  given  by  Surface  as  addi- 
tional proof  that  he  produced  abortion  with  the  culture  with  which  he 
inoculated. 

Moore  and  Fitch51  in  1911  inoculated  five  pregnant  cows  intra- 
venously with  cultures  of  Bacterium  abortum.  Abortion  took  place 
in  all  five  at  the  end  of  seven,  twenty-six,  sixty-five,  eighty-five,  and 
eighty-five  days,  respectively,  after  inoculation.  Characteristic  lesions 
of  abortion  were  present  in  every  instance  except  in  the  first  animal. 
This  experiment  is  of  doubtful  value  since  two  of  these  five  cows 
had  aborted,  two  had  been  sterile,  and  but  one  had  calved  the  pre- 
ceding year.  In  1912,  four  more  cows,  which  so  far  as  known  had 
never  aborted,  were  fed  cultures  of  Bacterium  abortum.  Three  of 
these  animals  aborted  and  one  had  retained  afterbirth.     Serum  tests 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  303 

were  not  made  before  feeding  these  animals.  All  of  them,  however, 
showed  an  increase  in  agglutinins  after  feeding,  and  two  of  the 
aborters,  which  were  definitely  negative  on  the  first  two  tests,  after 
feeding,  developed  an  agglutination  of  1  to  600.  In  1913,  four  more 
cows,  were  fed  abortion  organisms.  There  was  a  rise  of  agglutinins 
following  the  feeding  in  all  cases.  Three  were  still  pregnant  at  the 
time  of  the  writing  of  the  report.  One  dropped  a  weak  calf  at  263 
days  of  pregnancy. 

In  1913  Mohler  and  Traum49  reported  the  finding  of  Bacterium 
ab  or  turn  in  eleven  out  of  fifteen  aborted  fetuses. 

W.  L.  Williams85,  in  1914,  reported  experiments  with  six  heifers 
raised  carefully  under  his  direction.  These  he  infected  by  intra- 
venous inoculation  of  a  culture  of  the  same  strain  as  used  by  Moore 
and  Fitch.  One  of  the  six  died  of  tuberculosis.  Five  others  were 
killed  from  three  and  a  half  to  six  months  after  inoculation,  respec- 
tively. Four  were  normal  and  no  abortion  organisms  were  found; 
the  fifth  showed  in  the  utero-chorionic  space  abortion  exudate  from 
which  Bacterium  abort um  was  isolated. 

Another  lot  of  three  animals86  were  inoculated  intravenously.  One 
of  these  aborted,  one  calved  at  the  end  of  272  days  but  had  retained 
afterbirth  and  metritis ;  the  third  calved  at  the  end  of  284  days  with 
prompt  expulsion  of  the  fetus  but  metritis  developed  nine  days  after 
parturition.  In  another  group  of  three  heifers,  two  were  given 
cultures  by  the  mouth.  One  of  them  which  reacted  strongly  before 
the  culture  was  given  aborted.     The  other  calved  normally. 

Following  the  recording  of  the  above  experiments  of  Moore  and 
Fitch  and  of  his  own,  Williams  states :  ' '  With  full  regard  for  the 
defects  in  the  evidence,  it  is  nevertheless  extensive  and  important, 
and  justifies  amply  the  general  conclusion  that  the  Bang  organism 
is  the  essential  cause  of  contagious  abortion,  a  conclusion  freely  open 
to  revision  whenever  new  evidence  may  demand." 

In  the  reports  of  the  New  York  State  Veterinary  College  for 
years  1917-1887  and  1918-19,88  published  in  1919  and  1920,  respec- 
tively, Williams  reviews  the  work  of  Nocard,  Bang,  McFadyean  and 
Stockman,  Moore  and  Fitch,  his  own  experiments  just  mentioned,  and 
the  report  of  Bland,  in  which  the  latter  gives  a  record  of  inoculating 
five  pregnant  cows  and  nine  pregnant  heifers  by  intravenous  inocu- 
lation for  the  purpose  of  immunization  (inoculation  by  mistake  since 
Bland  thought  these  animals  were  not  pregnant).  Of  these  fourteen 
animals,  only  two  cows  and  one  heifer  aborted.  Williams  also  refers 
to  the  cultures  made  by  Day  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  at  Chicago.     From  the  uterine  cavity  of  twenty-five  preg- 


304  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

nant  cows,  seventeen  showed  no  growth;  two,  streptococci  and  short 
bacilli ;  three,  staphylococci  and  short  bacilli ;  one,  streptococci  and 
staphylococci.  In  a  similar  work  done  by  Hagan  at  the  Buffalo 
stock  yards,  in  which  he  examined  twenty-six  uteri,  sixteen  of  which 
were  pregnant,  he  found  two  sterile,  seven  which  yielded  coli-like 
organisms,  one  micrococci,  three  streptococci,  three  streptococci  and 
staphylococci,  and  in  one  of  these  there  was  also  found  paracolon. 
Two  out  of  the  sixteen  showed  exudation  in  the  utero-chorionic  space ; 
in  one  a  micrococcus  was  found  and  in  the  other  a  streptococcus.  It 
appears  that  Williams  lays  too  much  stress  upon  the  findings  by  Day 
and  Hagan  of  the  various  organisms  in  pregnant  and  non-pregnant 
uteri  and  attributes  to  these  organisms  an  unproved  importance  in 
cattle  abortion. 

In  1918  Theobald  Smith72  reported  the  finding  of  spirilla  or 
vibrios  in  pure  culture  from  the  fetuses  of  fourteen  cases  of  abortion. 
He  states  that  the  condition  of  the  fetus  is  much  the  same  whether 
spirilla  or  bacteria  of  abortion  are  present,  and  that  changes  in  the 
chorion  due  to  vibrio  cannot  be  distinguished  with  the  naked  eye 
from  those  due  to  the  organism  of  Bang73.  In  1919,  Smith74  reported 
the  .finding  of  twelve  more  cases  of  spirilla  infection  in  aborted 
fetuses.  One  of  these  twelve  was  associated  with  Bacterium  abortum. 
In  the  grouping  of  cases  of  abortion  according  to  the  associated 
bacteria,  in  one  herd  Smith75  recorded  sixty-two  cases  from  which 
Bacterium  abortum  was  isolated,  twenty-six  cases  of  pure  spirilla 
infection  (one  of  the  spirilla  cases  was  associated  with  Bacterium 
abortum  infection)  ;  another  group  of  twenty-one  abortions  from  which 
neither  Bacterium  abortum  nor  Vibrio  fetus*  was  isolated — Smith 
considers  that  one  or  two  of  the  twenty-one  cases  may  possibly  belong 
to  the  group  of  Bacterium  abortum  infections  and  several  may  come 
within  the  group  of  Vibrio  fetus.  Two  others  were  cases  of  infection 
with  Bacillus  pyogenes,  in  which  the  preceding  pregnancy  had  been 
cut  short  by  Bacterium  abortum  infection.  In  eight  cases  miscellane- 
ous rapidly-growing  bacteria  appeared  in  the  cultures.  Of  these 
several  may  be  regarded  as  cases  in  which  bacteria  gained  entrance 
after  expulsion,  the  fetus  being  large  enough  to  live  a  short  time 
after  birth.  One  was  clearly  a  case  of  asphyxiation  at  birth  and  one 
was  regarded  by  the  attendant  as  traceable  to  fighting  several  days 
before  expulsion  of  the  fetus.  Seven  were  considered  bacteria-free. 
Smith  states,  "How  many  of  these  seven  are  due  to  injury  or  toxic 
substance  and  food  factors  cannot  be  stated." 

*Name  suggested  by  Smith  for  the  spirillum  isolated  from  abortion  cases  and 
accepted  by  the  Commitee  of  the  Society  of  American  Bacteriologists  on  Charac- 
terization and  Classification  of  Bacterial  Types. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  305 

Smith74  succeeded  in  producing  a  disease  of  the  fetal  membrane 
and  finding  the  vibrios  in  two  out  of  four  pregnant  cows,  injected 
intravenously  with  cultures  of  his  Vibrio  fetus.  Bacterium  abortum 
infection  was  ruled  out  in  these  cases.  Among  the  twenty-six  cases 
associated  with  Vibrio  fetus  of  which  one  also  contained  Bacterium 
abortum,  there  were  no  heifers  involved.  All  were  second  or  later 
pregnancies.  Recently,  however,  Smith,  Little,  and  Taylor77  found 
three  cases  of  abortion  in  native  heifers  in  the  same  herd  associated 
with  Vibrio  fetus. 

Vibrios  have  been  recovered  from  abortions  in  ewes  in  the  British 
Isles  by  McFadyean  and  Stockman41  and  in  this  country  by  C.  M. 
Carpenter9.  The  former  also  report  the  finding  of  vibrios  in  cattle 
abortion  in  Ireland  and  in  Wales.  Bacterium  abortum  was  absent  in 
these  cases. 

In  the  report  of  the  New  York  State  Veterinary  College  for  the 
year  1920-21,  C.  M.  Carpenter10  recorded  the  bacteriological  studies 
of  cattle  genital  tracts  and  fetuses.  Among  these  are  included  the 
findings  in  eleven  pregnant  apparently  normal  uteri.  In  these  he 
found  six  uteri  sterile;  Bacterium  abortum  was  found  in  fetal  fluids 
in  one  case ;  three  uteri  showed  streptococci,  one  Pseudomonas  pyocy- 
aneus,  and  one  showed  an  unidentified  rod.  Cultures  from  eighteen 
normal  non-pregnant  uteri  yielded  no  growth  in  seven  uteri,  four 
showed  staphylococci,  and  three  streptococci  in  the  cultures.  Three 
developed  streptococci  and  staphylococci,  and  one  Pseudomonas 
pyocyaneus  in  the  cultures. 

In  twenty-three  fetuses  from  apparently  normal  pregnant  uteri, 
Carpenter  obtained  ten  negatives,  three  showed  streptococci  alone, 
three  staphylococci  alone,  and  three  streptococci  and  staphylococci 
together.  Three  showed  Bacterium  abortum  in  pure  culture  in  the 
stomach ;  one  of  the  three  showed  no  other  organism ;  in  another  strep- 
tococci were  found  in  the  meconium  of  the  rectum. 

Bacteriological  examination  of  twenty-five  aborted  fetuses  yielded 
the  following  results:  Bacterium  abortum  was  found  in  ten  cases. 
In  nine  it  was  found  in  pure  culture,  eight  times  in  the  stomach 
alone  or  also  in  other  organs,  and  once  in  the  genital  tract.  In  five  of 
these  nine  cases,  no  other  organism  was  found  in  the  fetus.  In  the 
tenth  case  staphylococci  and  Bacterium  abortum  were  found  in  the 
heart's  blood.  Streptococci  alone  were  found  in  two  cases.  In  two 
other  fetuses  streptococci  associated  with  other  organisms  were  ob- 
tained. In  four  fetuses  staphylococci  alone  or  associated  with  other 
organisms  were  obtained.  In  one  case  a  Gram  positive  rod,  and  in 
another  a  Gram  positive  spore-bearing  rod  was  found. 


306  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Carpenter  also  made  a  bacteriological  examination  of  three  mummi- 
fied fetuses.  In  one  he  found  Streptococcus  viridans.  In  the  other, 
two  organisms  from  the  colon-aerogenes  group  were  obtained.  One 
of  the  latter  cases  was  associated  with  Bacterium  abortum. 

Rettger,  White,  and  Chapman00  in  a  recent  publication  reported 
results  of  their  attempt  to  produce  abortion  by  artificial  inoculation 
of  cultures  of  Bacterium  abortum.  In  their  first  trials  where  fourteen 
feedings  of  Bacterium  abortum  in  capsules  were  given  to  eight  cattle 
between  the  ages  of  two  to  twelve  years,  they  obtained  uniformly 
negative  results.  In  the  second  attempt  ten  calves  were  fed  cultures 
in  pasteurized  milk  and  after  weaning  were  given  cultures  in  cap- 
sules. Here  again  they  obtained  negative  results.  In  both  experi- 
ments the  feeding  of  the  organism  in  capsules  did  not  incite  the 
production  of  agglutinins  or  complement  fixing  bodies.  Ten  calves 
were  used  as  controls.  One  of  these  became  a  confirmed  reactor  to 
the  serologic  tests  and  aborted,  another  aborted  later. 

In  another  experiment  three  heifers  were  injected  subcutaneously 
with  culture  of  Bacterium  abortum.  One  aborted  and  the  others 
gave  positive  reactions.  The  inner  surface  of  the  vulvas  of  three  other 
heifers  was  scarified  and  coated  with  cultures  of  Bacterium  abortum. 
One  of  these  gave  a  positive  reaction  and  aborted  five  months  after 
infection.  The  other  two  remained  negative  to  the  test,  one  calving 
normally  and  the  other  found  to  be  non-pregnant.  Eight  heifers 
received  superficial  intra-urethral  injection  of  cultures  of  Bacterium 
abortum.  Six  became  reactors  to  the  serological  test.  One  gave  only 
partial  reactions  and  one  was  negative.  Two  of  the  reactors  dropped 
premature  small  but  live  calves.  In  a  further  experiment,  seven 
animals  received  deep  intravaginal  injection  of  Bacterium  abortum. 
Three  of  the  seven  became  confirmed  reactors,  two  aborted,  another 
gave  birth  to  a  small  calf  and  a  third  calved  normally.  The  other 
four  resisted  injection  and  remained  negative  to  the  serological  tests. 

Huddelson33,  in  his  studies  on  artificial  immunization  against 
bovine  infectious  abortion  used  fifteen  heifers,  none  of  which  had 
ever  given  a  positive  blood  test,  nor  had  they  ever  so  far  as  known 
been  subjected  to  abortion  infection  before  this  experiment.  Six 
were  immunized,  four  were  kept  as  normal  controls,  five  were  controls 
on  the  mode  of  infection  after  immunization  and  conception.  Three 
of  these  five  received  intravenous  injection  of  1  c.c.  of  Bacterium 
abortum  and  two  were  fed  living  cultures  of  Bacterium  abortum. 
Three  of  the  normal  controls  calved  normally  and  one  failed  to  con- 
ceive. Each  of  the  five  infected  controls,  however,  aborted  about  ten 
weeks  subsequent  to  the  appearance  of  antibodies  in  the  blood  serum. 


Bulletin  353]  bovine  infectious  abortion  307 

Seddon68  in  his  studies  on  abortion  diseases  records  the  infec- 
tion of  a  cow  by  drenching  on  the  sixty-second  day  of  her  pregnancy, 
which  resulted  in  premature  calving  on  the  262nd  day  and  the  finding 
of  Bacterium  abortum  in  the  uterine  exudate.  Another  animal  which 
was  injected  subcutaneously  with  Bacterium  abortum  aborted  eighty- 
two  days  after  infection,  on  the  249th  day  of  pregnancy.  The  uterine 
exudate  contained  abortion  bacilli  (cultures  and  guinea  pig  inocula- 
tions). A  third  heifer  on  the  sixty-third  day  of  gestation  received 
intravenously,  living  Bacterium  abortum,  and  108  days  after  the 
inoculation  the  animal  aborted.  Organisms  were  found  in  the  fetus 
and  in  the  exudate.  A  fourth  heifer  when  pregnant  225  days  received 
abortion  organisms  in  the  vagina.  She  calved  the  268th  day  of 
pregnancy,  which  was  sixty-seven  days  after  the  infection.  The 
uterine  exudate  contained  Bacterium  abortum.  He  does  not  state 
in  his  article  the  number  of  animals,  if  any,  which  were  negative  to 
the  inoculation. 

Sven  Wall's83  extensive  studies  on  alterations  in  the  uteri  in 
abortion  and  chronic  metritis  are  pertinent  to  our  discussion.  His 
findings  were  as  follows:  In  two  gravid  uteri  showing  metritis, 
chorionitis,  and  placentitis,  Bacterium  abortum  alone  was  found  in  the 
exudate.  In  another  gravid  uterus  containing  odorless  thick  pus 
in  the  utero-chorionic  space,  Bacillus  pyogenes  alone  was  found ;  this 
case  showed  chorionitis  and  metritis,  but  no  placentitis.  In  a  fourth 
gravid  uterus,  between  the  unaltered  fetal  membranes  and  the  red- 
colored,  partly  denuded  uterine  mucosa,  about  fifteen  cubic  centi- 
meters of  yellow,  odorless,  slimy  pus  were  observed  lying  at  the 
internal  opening  of  the  cervical  canal.  Smears  showed  streptococci 
and  probably  Bacterium  coli.  This  case  was  two  days  old  when 
examined. 

In  two  uteri,  containing  mummified  fetuses,  Bacterium  abortum 
alone  was  found.  From  four  other  cases  of  uteri  containing  mummi- 
fied fetuses  Wall  obtained  from  one,  Bacillus  pyogenes,  from  another 
Bacillus  pyogenes  and  a  streptococcus,  from  the  third  case  a  strepto- 
coccus, and  from  the  fourth  a  streptococcus,  Bacterium  coli  and  a 
diphtheroid. 

From  the  uterine  cavity  of  two  cattle  that  came  to  autopsy  some 
days  after  abortion,  he  isolated  Bacterium  abortum.  In  one  case 
this  organism  was  associated  with  streptococci  and  in  the  other  with 
Bacillus  pyogenes  and  Bacterium  coli. 

In  three  cases  of  retained  afterbirth  and  in  fifteen  cases  of  chronic 
metritis  he  found,  as  a  rule,  either  streptococci  or  Bacillus  pyogenes 
or  both,  and  in  some  instances  these  were  complicated  with  Bacterium 
coli  or  Bacterium  proteus  putrefaction. 


308  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

PATHOGENICITY    TESTS    OF    VARIOUS    STRAINS    OF    BACTERIUM 

ABORTUM 

Since  the  work  of  Smith  and  Fabyan79  and  that  of  Schroeder  and 
Cotton66  upon  production  of  the  disease  in  guinea  pigs  by  inoculation 
of  Bacterium  abortum,  these  experimental  animals  have  been  used 
a  great  deal  for  determining  the  presence  and  the  isolation  of  Bac- 
terium abortum  from  suspected  materials.  They  have  also  been  used 
for  the  study  of  comparative  pathogenicity  of  various  strains  of 
Bacterium  abortum. 

Schroeder64  reports  that,  together  with  W.  E.  Cotton,  he  studied 
three  porcine  strains,  one  from  Indiana,  the  second  from  Illinois,  and 
the  third  from  California.  They  found  these  strains  to  differ  in 
their  pathogenicity  for  guinea  pigs.  They  were  not  wholly  like  any 
of  the  numerous  other  bovine  strains  studied  by  them.  The  lesions 
produced  by  porcine  strains  in  guinea  pigs  were  grosser  in  character, 
bone  lesions  were  commoner,  and  post-orbital  abscesses  developed. 
One  of  the  porcine  strains  produced  abortion  in  cattle  and  sows. 

From  a  comparative  study  of  ten  porcine  strains  from  three  out- 
breaks in  California  and  of  five  bovine  strains  of  Bacterium  abortum, 
the  writer82  concluded:  "Porcine  strains,  on  the  whole,  proved  to 
be  more  virulent  for  guinea  pigs,  causing,  with  few  exceptions  involv- 
ment  of  the  testes  and  one  or  both  radio-carpal  regions,  also  general 
adenitis.  Thirteen  of  the  twenty-two  guinea  pigs  inoculated  with 
porcine  strains  succumbed  within  two  months,  while  none  of  the 
twelve  inoculated  with  bovine  strains  died  of  infection.  The  dose 
for  each  guinea  pig  in  the  above  series  was  similar. ' ' 

Meyer,  Fleischner,  and  Shaw46,  in  their  study  on  the  pathogen- 
icity of  Bacterium  melitensis  and  Bacterium  abortum  for  guinea  pigs, 
review  the  work  done  and  results  obtained  in  guinea  pig  inoculation 
with  Bacterium  abortum  by  Smith  and  Fadj^an,  Schroeder  and  Cot- 
ton, T.  C.  Evans,  Krage,  Thomsen,  Holth,  Robinson  and  Zeller.  From 
their  review,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  the  lesions  in  guinea  pigs 
have  not  been  found  by  many  of  the  above  mentioned  workers. 

Meyer,  Fleischner  and  Shaw  studied  the  pathogenicity  of  four 
bovine  strains  upon  twenty-two  guinea  pigs ;  eighteen  were  inoculated 
intratesticularly  and  four  subcutaneously.  Two  strains  were  patho- 
genic for  guinea  pigs  in  fifteen  out  of  sixteen  cases,  and  the  other 
two  strains  produced  lesions  and  infection  in  one  each  of  three  inocu- 
lated intratesticularly  with  each  strain.  One  of  their  pathogenic 
strains  which  had  been  isolated  from  milk,  was  two  years  old.  The 
history  of  the  other  strain  is  unknown.  The  dose  used  in  the  above 
inoculations  was  from  1000  to  2000  million  viable  organisms.     They 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  309 

conclude  that  until  knowledge  relative  to  individual  susceptibility  of 
the  guinea  pig  has  been  accumulated,  it  is  impossible  to  make  con- 
clusive statements,  but  the  few,  carefully-controlled  observations 
rather  forcibly  suggest  that  old  stock  cultures  are  not  only  less  toxic 
but  less  invasive  than  recently  isolated  strains  or  infected  material 
derived  from  bovine,  porcine,  or  cavian  sources. 

These  investigators  also  found  Bacterium  abortum  from  sows 
highly  virulent  for  guinea  pigs.  Six  out  of  twenty-four  animals 
succumbed  in  from  seventeen  to  forty  days  after  intraperitoneal 
inoculation.  The  strain  exhibited  pyogenic  properties.  The  testicles, 
epididymes,  and  seminal  vesicles  of  all  the  animals  used  in  the  tests 
were  destroyed  by  suppurative  processes.  The  spleen  was  usually 
enlarged.  Nine  guinea  pigs  showed  involvment  of  the  ribs  and  long 
bones,  while  eleven  showed  lesions  only  in  the  radio-carpal  and  talo- 
tibial regions.  They  also  report  in  tabulated  form  the  lesions  found 
in  114  guinea  pigs  inoculated  with  stock  cultures,  milk  and  guinea 
pig  material  at  various  periods  after  inoculations. 

Huddleson34,  in  his  recent  study  on  comparative  pathogenicity  of 
several  strains  of  Bacterium  abortum,  used  twenty-one  strains  on  one 
hundred  and  twelve  guinea  pigs.  From  his  work,  one  can  conclude 
in  a  general  way  that  older  cultures  lose  their  virulence  for  guinea 
pigs.  In  fact,  he  states:  "A  majority  of  strains  isolated  became 
non-virulent  within  one  year  after  isolation. ' '  A  study  of  his  results 
indicates  that  there  appears  to  be  a  difference  of  the  individual  strain 
irrespective  of  time  of  its  isolation.  For  instance,  his  strains  20  and 
805  were  both  isolated  in  May,  1919 ;  the  former  uniformly  produced 
lesions  while  the  latter  was  uniformly  negative.  His  strain  16  yielded 
no-lesion  guinea  pigs  in  January,  1920  and  August,  1921,  but  was 
positive  April,  1921.  One  swine  culture  failed  to  produce  lesions  in 
guinea  pigs,  while  another  strain  from  Illinois  yielded  positive  and 
negative  guinea  pigs. 

OBSERVATIONS  UPON  FOETY  ABORTED  FETUSES  RECEIVED   AT 

BERKELEY 
Agglutination  tests  of  blood  sera  from  cattle  in  a  number  of 
herds  in  various  parts  of  California  indicated  that  abortion  was  in  a 
large  percentage  of  cases  due  to  Bacterium  abortum  infection ;  never- 
theless it  was  deemed  advisable  to  make  a  bacteriological  study  of 
aborted  fetuses  from  dairies  within  a  radius  of  one  hundred  miles  of 
Berkeley.  In  general,  the  procedure  consisted  in  making  three  cultures 
from  the  stomach  contents  on  cooked  blood  agar,  fetus  liver  agar, 
2  per  cent  glycerol  and  1  per  cent  glucose  agar,  respectively,  three  on 
the  same  kind  of  media  from  the  lungs  and  one  from  the  meconium, 


310 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


and  placing  these  under  C02  conditions,  as  suggested  by  Huddleson.35 
Plates  were  streaked  with  stomach  contents  and  meconium  from  the 
rectum  and  kept  under  ordinary  atmospheric  conditions  in  the  incu- 
bator. Figure  2*  illustrates  the  method  used  in  our  laboratory  to 
obtain  the  recommended  C02  conditions.  Fifteen  per  cent  of  the  air 
is  drawn  off  by  suction  and  replaced  by  10  per  cent  of  carbon  dioxide 
from  the  tank.  It  was  found  necessary  to  remove  5  per  cent  more  air 
than  was  replaced  by  gas  to  allow  for  expansion  when  placed  in  the 
incubator. 


9    ~1 

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HL                             laws. 

Fig.  2.  — Illustrating  Method  Used  in  Growing  Bacterium  abortum  Under  C02. 
The  Pressure  in  the  desiccator  is  reduced  by  suction  until  manom- 
eter reads  144  mm.  (marked  15%).  C02  is  allowed  to  flow  in  from 
cylinder  until  pressure  reads  38  mm.  (marked  5%).  Upon  heating  to 
37°  C.  in  incubator,  the  pressure  will  again  become  approximately 
atmospheric. 

Besides  inoculating  the  cultures,  one  guinea  pig  was  inocu- 
lated intraperitoneally  with  stomach  contents  and  another  with  lung 
extract.  Hanging  drop  preparations  were  made  at  the  time  of 
autopsy,  with  a  special  view  to  determining  the  presence  or  absence 
of  spirilla.  Smears  were  made  from  the  stomach  contents  and  lung 
in  duplicate  and  were  stained  with  Gram  and  other  methods  as  it 
was  thought  desirable.  Table  1  contains  the  result  of  such  examina- 
tion upon  forty  fetuses  made  by  Hart  and  the  writer. 

*The  modification  of  the  Huddleson  method,  as  illustrated  in  Figure  2,  was 
suggested  by  H.  Goss  of  the  Nutrition  Division.  The  manometer  was  also  made 
by  him. 


Bulletin  353] 


BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION 


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BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION 


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Bulletin  353] 


BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION 


317 


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Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  319 

Table  1  needs  little  comment.  In  the  third  column  the  means  by 
which  the  fetuses  reached  our  laboratory  are  indicated.  This  was 
included  since  we  found  that  fetuses  sent  in  by  express  did  not  arrive 
in  as  good  condition  as  those  received  by  truck  or  messenger.  The 
truck  bringing  milk  from  the  valley  would  pick  up  properly  packed 
fetuses  and  deliver  them  to  us,  as  a  rule,  within  five  hours  after  being 
received  by  the  truckman.  Of  course,  some  fetuses  had  been  dropped 
some  time  before  the  veterinarian  received  them,  but  the  veterinarians 
living  along  that  truck  line  were  impressed  with  the  importance  of 
obtaining  fetuses  in  good  condition.  The  fetuses  received  by  truck 
or  messenger  were  on  the  whole  either  positive  for  Bacterium  abortum 
or  else  sterile;  especially  was  this  true  during  cold  weather.  In  the 
cases  where  there  was  evidence  of  lung  expansion  by  air,  there  were 
always  contaminating  organisms. 

In  cases  negative  for  Bacterium  abortum,  it  was  not  always  possi- 
ble to  obtain  as  much  history  as  desirable;  nevertheless,  some  was 
obtained  and  deserves  mention  here.  Cases  2  and  4  came  from  the 
same  dairy,  and  an  agglutination  test  of  sera  from  eight  aborting 
cows  several  weeks  after  abortion  gave  four  strong  positives,  one 
partial,  and  three  negatives.  Sera  from  the  dams  of  the  two  fetuses 
were  not  obtained.  Fetus  8  came  from  a  cow  which  was  the  only 
animal  to  abort  in  a  herd  of  eight.  Serum  from  the  aborting  cow, 
obtained  April  26  gave  negative  agglutination  test.  Six  other  cows 
in  this  herd  were  also  negative ;  one  cow  gave  positive  reaction  in  .02 
c.c.  serum  but  was  negative  in  .01  c.c.  to  two  antigens.  A  strong 
positive  was  obtained  in  one  animal  added  to  the  herd  after  the 
abortion  occurred.  Regarding  the  aborting  cow,  the  owner  informed 
us  that  she  threw  herself  in  the  stanchion  on  an  uneven  wooden  floor 
and  three  days  later  aborted  fetus  8.  (This  case  mentioned  in  article 
III  under  injury).  Notations  above  Table  1  indicate  that  vibrios  were 
found  in  smears  from  the  stomach  contents. 

Fetus  9  was  obtained  from  a  herd  of  twenty  of  which  two  aborted  ; 
one  of  the  aborted  fetuses  was  our  No.  9.  All  but  the  two  aborters 
were  sold.  Agglutination  test  upon  serum  drawn  April  27,  1922, 
indicated  that  the  dam  of  fetus  9  was  a  strong  reactor  and  the  other 
aborter  showed  positive  reaction  in  .04  c.c,  and  partial  in  .02  c.c,  but 
negative  in  .01  c.c.  From  fetus  9  Bacillus  pyogenes  alone  was  isolated 
from  stomach  and  lung.  Smears  from  these  organs  showed 
enormous  numbers  of  a  Gram  positive  pleomorphic  organism  which 
proved  to  be  Bacillus  pyogenes. 

Fetuses  21,  22,  24,  and  26  came  from  a  dairy  of  over  200  animals 
where  several  years  ago  a  large  number  of  serum  tests  were  made, 


320  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

which  resulted  in  finding  many  cases  positive  for  Bacterium  abortum. 
Fetuses  24  and  26  exhibited  a  similar  but  as  yet  unidentified  organism 
in  the  stomach  contents  of  each.  A  study  of  abortion  in  this  herd  is 
being  made.    In  case  22  nothing  but  Bacillus  pyogenes  was  obtained. 

Fetuses  27  and  28  forwarded  by  the  same  man  reached  the  labora- 
tory in  a  very  bad  state  of  decomposition.  Cultures  were  overgrown 
and  the  guinea  pig  inoculation  from  lung  alone  remained  for  diagnos- 
tic purposes  in  each  case. 

Fetus  36  was  one  of  twins  and  was  dropped  by  a  cow  that  three 
days  previously  had  given  birth  to  an  eight-month  but  apparently 
normal,  dead  fetus.  (We  did  not  see  this  fetus).  Our  autopsy  on 
Fetus  36  is  as  follows:  100  cm.  long,  skin  and  hair  apparently  nor- 
mal; no  union  of  epiphyses  and  diaphyses,  bones  of  skull  easily  and 
freely  movable,  ribs  unattached,  bones  of  vertebral  column  and  their 
processes  separated,  gas  in  subcutis  and  pleural  cavity.  Fibrinous 
exudate  presenting  roughened  appearance  present  on  the  thoracic 
and  abdominal  walls;  same  roughened  appearance  on  heart  and 
pericardium.     Muscle  of  legs  greatly  shrunken. 

Regarding  the  other  fetuses  negative  for  Bacterium  abortum, 
there  is  nothing  to  be  added  to  what  is  shown  in  Table  1. 


DISCUSSION 
In  the  introductory  pages  it  was  pointed  out  that  even  though  the 
disease  is  termed  "Bovine  Infectious  Abortion,"  and  even  though 
abortion  is  the  most  prominent  symptom,  it  is  not  necessary  for  the 
premature  expulsion  of  the  fetus  to  occur  in  order  to  give  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  an  infection  that  can  and  does  frequently  produce 
abortion.  In  estimating  the  power  of  any  organism  to  incite  the  pro- 
duction of  one  or  more  of  the  changes  in  the  pregnant  uterus  and 
its  fetus  which  frequently  bring  about  abortion,  we  must  not  insist 
upon  the  occurrence  of  this  manifestation,  but  may  safely  accept 
an  organism  as  being  the  cause  of  abortion  when  it  has  been  demon- 
strated that  such  organism  is  capable  of  locating  itself  in  the  pregnant 
uterus  and  setting  up  inflammatory  changes  there  which  involve  the 
placenta  and  chorion  and  which  often  manifest  themselves  clinically 
by  an  endometritis  and  retained  afterbirth.  Such  inflammatory  pro- 
cesses may  and  often  do  proceed  to  such  an  extent  as  to  infect  the 
fetus  or  interfere  with  its  proper  development,  resulting  in  the  dis- 
charging of  a  weak  or  dead  fetus  at  various  stages  of  gestation. 
Sometimes  the  fetus  perishes  but  is  not  expelled  and  becomes 
mummified. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  321 

The  Power  of  Bacterium  Abortum  to  Produce  Abortion  Disease 
Manifestations. — That  Bacterium  abortum  has  such  power  is  amply 
indicated  by  the  experimental  evidence  quoted  above.  Bang  demon- 
strated that  fact,  not  only  by  finding  the  organism  in  the  exudate 
in  the  utero-chorionic  space  and  in  the  aborted  fetuses,  but  also  in 
practically  all  of  his  experiments  with  cattle  excepting  the  first  four 
cows  inoculated  by  him  which  were  slaughtered  soon  after  inoculation. 
McFadyean  and  Stockman,  by  causing  the  production  of  inflamma- 
tory changes  and  the  resultant  abortion  exudate,  or  by  causing  the 
actual  premature  expulsion  of  the  fetus,  and  by  the  demonstration  of 
Bacterium  abortum  in  the  exudate  and  fetus  in  their  experimentally- 
inoculated  heifers,  showed  that  Bacterium  abortum  satisfies  the  re- 
quirements set  forth  above.  They  made  this  demonstration  with 
eight  out  of  fourteen  pregnant  cows  inoculated  with  natural  material 
and  in  all  of  eleven  cases  inoculated  in  various  ways  with  cultures  of 
Bacterium  abortum. 

Sven  Wall  added  further  evidence  in  this  respect  when  in  two 
gravid  uteri  he  found  inflammatory  changes  involving  the  chorion, 
endometrium,  and  placenta,  and  in  the  utero-chorionic  exudate  he 
found  only  Bacterium  abortum.  The  recovery  of  Bacterium  abortum 
alone  in  two  mummified  fetuses  may  also  be  included  as  support  of 
the  power  of  this  organism  to  cause  fetal  death. 

Moore  and  Fitch's  report  indicates  that  at  least  in  their  second 
infection  experiment,  they  were  able  to  bring  about  abortion  by  feed- 
ing cultures  of  Bacterium  abortum  to  pregnant  cows. 

The  work  of  Huddleson,  Seddon,  and  others,  who  infected  non- 
infected  cattle  with  Bacterium  abortum  and  produced  abortion  or 
exudative  imflammation  of  the  uterus  and  chorion  in  which  the  inocu- 
lated organism  was  found  is  added  proof  that  Bacterium  abortum 
is  concerned  in  the  production  of  bovine  infectious  abortion. 

The  investigations  of  E.  M.  Robinson61' 62,  in  which  he  claims  to 
have  eliminated  infectious  abortion  through  application  of  the  agglu- 
tination test  with  Bacterium  abortum,  add  to  the  evidence  that 
Bacterium  abortum  is  able  to  produce  abortion.  After  four  years' 
experience  with  this  method  he  still  recommends  it.  Simms  and  Miller 
also  claim  that  testing  all  cattle  and  eliminating  reactors  will  certainly 
tend  to  control  and  possibly  eradicate  abortion.  Details  of  these 
observations  are  fully  discussed  in  the  paper  on  "Methods  of 
Controlling  Abortion. ' ' 

The  Failures  of  Bacterium  Abortum  to  Produce  Abortion  Disease 
Manifestations. — In  some  of  the  experiments  with  Bacterium  abortum 
quoted  in  the  preceding  pages,  it  was  not  possible  to  produce  actual 


322  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

abortion  or  changes  in  the  uterus  and.  chorion  in  a  large  percentage 
of  inoculated  animals.  Williams  succeeded  in  only  one  out  of  five 
heifers  in  his  first  inoculation  experiment.  He  had  a  higher  per- 
centage of  successes  in  his  two  other  attempts  upon  five  animals. 
Bland,  quoted  by  Williams,  succeeded  in  producing  abortion  by 
inoculation  of  Bacterium  abortum  in  only  three  out  of  fourteen  cases. 
Rettger,  White,  and  Chapman  failed  to  infect  eighteen  heifers  fed 
Bacterium  abortum  in  capsules.  Their  experiments  were  rather 
unusual  on  account  of  the  fact  that  several  animals  were  fed  cultures 
before  or  at  the  time  of  and  at  various  periods  after  breeding.  They 
caused  infection  by  inoculating  the  culture  into  the  subcutis,  into  the 
vagina  upon  the  urethra  and  upon  the  scarified  vulva.  In  view  of 
the  successful  infections  via  the  digestive  tract  by  other  observers, 
it  can  only  be  concluded  from  the  work  of  Rettger,  White  and  Chap- 
man that  they  were  unable  to  infect  cattle  by  introducing  into  the 
mouth  capsules  containing  Bacterium  abortum. 

The  revieAv  of  the  work  on  the  pathogenicity  of  Bacterium  abortum 
given  above  indicates  that  there  is  a  difference  of  virulence  for  guinea 
pigs  in  different  or  even  in  the  same  strain  of  this  organism,  and 
failures  to  produce  the  well-established  inoculation  disease  in  guinea 
pigs  with  Bacterium  abortum  explain  to  some  extent  the  failure  to 
produce  bovine  infectious  abortion  sometimes  in  small  and  sometimes 
in  large  percentages  of  experimentally-inoculated  animals. 

Extent  of  Bacterium  Abortum  Infection. — Reports  of  the  investi- 
gation upon  this  disease  as  reviewed  above  yield  some  information 
as  to  the  extent  in  which  abortion  has  been  caused  by  Bacterium 
abortum.  The  British  Commission's  data  along  this  line,  even  though 
based  entirely  upon  microscopic  examination,  and  therefore  not  alto- 
gether reliable,  nevertheless  deserves  recapitulation  here.  Out  of 
fiftj^-one  fetuses  examined,  twenty-one  were  pronounced  positive  for 
Bacterium  abortum,  and  twenty-nine  were  negative.  Out  of  thirty- 
five  fetal  membranes,  thirty-three  were  positive.  Of  forty-two  vaginal 
swabs  twenty-nine  were  found  to  be  positive.  In  this  connection  it 
might  be  stated  that  it  has  been  our  experience  that  the  microscopic 
examination  of  smears  from  the  stomach  contents  and  lung  tissue 
from  the  aborted  fetuses  frequently  gave  negative  results  for  Bac- 
terium abortum  when  cultures  or  guinea  pig  inoculation,  or  both, 
of  the  same  material  proved  to  be  positive. 

More  satisfactory  estimates  of  the  extent  of  the  Bacterium  abortum 
infection  in  cases  of  abortion  may  be  made  by  referring  to  the  results 
obtained  by  the  various  investigators  who  made  cultural  or  guinea 
pig   inoculations,   or  both,   of   materials  obtained   from  the   aborted 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  323 

fetuses.  Here  we  find  the  percentage  of  cases  where  Bacterium 
abortion  was  found  to  vary  from  40,  in  the  work  of  C.  M.  Carpenter, 
to  79.1  as  reported  by  Holth.  Without  overestimating  the  importance 
of  Bacterium  abortum,  it  should  be  stated  that  this  organism  might 
be  responsible  for  abortion  even  if  it  cannot  be  demonstrated  by 
cultural  and  guinea-pig  inoculations  of  fetal  material  alone.  In  a 
good  many  of  the  reported  cases  placental  tissue  was  not  available. 

In  a  fair  percentage  of  the  fetuses  negative  to  Bacterium  abortum, 
no  organisms  of  any  kind  could  be  demonstrated.  Thus  Zwick  and 
Zeller  found  thirteen  out  of  fifty-two  fetuses  sterile  upon  cultural 
inoculations.  Smith  reported  seven  out  of  one  hundred  nine  cases  as 
sterile,  and  eight  fetuses  showed  rapidly-growing  organisms  which 
he  considered  as  probably  having  gained  entrance  after  the  fetus 
had  been  dropped.  Carpenter  found  two  out  of  twenty-five  that 
yielded  no  organisms. 

Table  1  shows  that  our  cases  16,  17,  23,  30,  and  34  yielded  no 
growth  in  our  cultures  and  inoculations.  In  our  fetuses  2,  4,  6,  19, 
21,  and  39,  the  extent  and  the  character  of  the  growth  found  suggests 
strongly  unimportant  contamination.  Our  cases  27,  28,  31,  and  36 
were  decomposed  to  such  an  extent  as  to  expect  the  finding  of  the 
organisms  indicated  in  the  table. 

Other  Organisms  Connected  With  Abortion  Disease  Manifesta- 
tions.— Of  the  microorganisms  other  than  Bacterium  abortum  that 
have  been  associated  with  the  infectious  type  of  abortion,  the  spirillum 
or  Vibrio  fetus,  commands  first  attention,  principally  on  account  of 
the  work  of  Theobald  Smith.  In  one  herd  of  one  hundred  nine 
abortions  he  found  twenty-six  cases  of  abortion*  associated  with 
Vibrio  fetus  and  in  twenty-five  of  these  Bacterium  abortum  could 
not  be  demonstrated.  He  further  incriminated  the  vibrio  by  produc- 
ing disease  of  the  fetal  membranes  in  two  out  of  four  cows  injected 
with  the  vibrio.  Judging  from  the  literature  on  cattle  abortion,  this 
infection  must  be  extremely  rare.  Smith's  report  of  these  findings 
in  one  herd  is  practically  the  only  report  of  bovine  abortion  in 
America  attributed  to  this  infection.  The  British  Commission  men- 
tions the  finding  of  vibrio  abortion  in  cattle  in  one  outbreak  in  Ireland 
and  in  another  in  Wales. 

In  fetus  8  we  demonstrated  the  presence  of  vibrios  in  the  stomach 
contents.  The  dam  of  this  fetus  gave  negative  agglutination  test  with 
Bacterium  abortum  antigen.  In  this  case  there  is  also  a  history  of 
injury,  the  importance  of  which  was  not  determined. 

*The  review  of  literature  above  shows  that  three  more  cases  of  vibrio  infection 
were  found  in  this  herd  after  Smith  had  reported  a  grouping  of  the  abortion  cases. 


324  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Bacillus  pyogenes  was  found  in  one  out  of  fifty-two  fetuses  by 
Zwick  and  Zeller.  Holth  recovered  this  organism  in  one  out  of  twenty- 
four  aborted  fetuses.  Smith  found  it  in  two  cases  of  abortion  in  which 
the  preceding  pregnancy  was  cut  short  by  Bacterium  abortum  infec- 
tion. Table  1  shows  that  Bacillus  pyogenes  alone  was  found  in  cases 
9  and  22.  The  dam  of  the  former  reacted  to  agglutination  test  with 
Bacterium  abortum  antigen.  This  organism  has  been  associated  with 
supurative  processes  in  mastitis,  pyelonephritis,  and  very  frequently 
alone  or  in  conjunction  with  streptococci  in  chronic  metrites.  Whether 
or  not  Bacillus  pyogenes  is  the  cause  of  abortion  in  even  the  very  few 
instances  mentioned,  or  simply  penetrates  the  fetus  after  its  death 
from  other  causes,  cannot  be  concluded  from  the  evidence  at  hand. 
Wall's  findings  strongly  suggest  that  this  organism  may  produce 
abortion. 

Streptococci  and  staphylococci  have  been  found  by  C.  M.  Carpen- 
ter. In  the  twenty-five  aborted  fetuses  he  found  the  former  alone  or 
with  other  organisms  in  four  of  them,  and  the  latter  alone  or  with 
other  organisms  in  the  same  number  of  cases.  He  reported  these 
organisms  in  practically  the  same  proportion  in  fetuses  from  pregnant 
uteri.  Carpenter,  Williams,  and  Gilman11  have  associated  the  strep- 
tococci with  various  forms  of  salpingitis,  and  it  has  been  found  by 
Wall  about  as  frequently  as  Bacillus  pyogenes  or  in  conjunction 
with  Bacillus  pyogenes  in  various  cases  of  chronic  metritis.  Regard- 
ing the  importance  of  streptococci  in  infectious  abortion,  Carpen- 
ter states:  "It  does  not  seem  possible  that  these  organisms  can 
invade  the  embryonic  or  fetal  tissue  without  causing  damage."  The 
streptococcus  has  not  been  observed,  however,  by  other  investigators 
in  connection  with  this  disease,  and  it  is  possible  that  he  was  con- 
fronted with  an  infection  peculiar  to  his  locality. 

Bacteria  of  the  colon-aerogenes  group  at  one  time  were  looked 
upon  as  a  probable  cause  of  infectious  abortion.  They  are,  however, 
no  longer  considered  as  such.  These  organisms  are  encountered  prin- 
cipally when  the  material  examined  is  not  in  fresh  condition  or  in 
cases  where  the  lungs  of  the  fetuses  show  expansion  by  air.  Such  has 
been  the  experience  of  Zwick  and  Zeller  and  of  Carpenter.  Our  cases 
7,  27,  31,  32,  35,  and  37  belong  to  this  group. 

Moussu  claims  that  a  variety  of  paracolon  has  been  found  by  him 
in  western  France  as  the  cause  of  abortion.  He  gives  no  details.  The 
paracolon  organisms  are  very  easily  isolated  and  recognized,  and  the 
failure  to  find  reports  of  such  infection  is  indicative  of  its  rarity. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  325 


CONCLUSIONS 

1.  As  far  as  the  microorganismal  agent  of  bovine  abortion  is  con- 
cerned, it  has  been  proved  that  Bacterium  abortum  is  the  greatest 
in  importance,  in  that  by  its  multiplication  and  activities  it  produces 
the  necessary  changes  to  bring  about  abortion,  and  it  has  been 
recovered  many  times  more  than  all  the  other  organisms  mentioned  in 
this  connection. 

2.  There  is  a  noteworthy  percentage  of  abortions  in  which  the 
presence  of  Bacterium  abortum  has  not  been  established.  In  some  of 
these  no  microorganisms  or  only  inconsequential  ones  were  demon- 
strated. In  a  small  percentage  of  cases  negative  for  Bacterium 
abortum,  organisms  have  been  found  that  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration ;  in  this  group  belong  the  Vibrio  fetus  and  possibly  Bacillus 
pyogenes  and  some  of  the  streptococci. 


Fig.  3. — Gravid  uterus  of  cow  at  full  term  laid  open  to  show  fetal 
sac  with  faint  outline  of  fetus.     (After  W.  L.  "Williams.) 

1.  Dorsal  or  greater  curvature  of  uterus.  V.  Supra-vaginal  pouch  of 
uterus.  1".  Section  through  uterus  at  cervix.  2.  Eight  wall  of  uterine 
body  and  horn  detached  from  chorion  and  turned  down.  4.  Ventral  row 
of  chorionic  (fetal)  cotyledons.  The  first  two  are  partly  hidden  beneath 
the  fetal  sac  against  the  cervix.  The  apex  of  the  fetal  sac  is  rolled 
outwards  showing  the  median  raphe  to  the  left  of  the  last  four  cotyledons. 
5.  Dorsal  margin  of  the  allantoic  sac  incised  and  turned  down,  exposing 
7,  the  amniotic  sac.  6,  6.  Dorsal  line  of  allantoic  sac,  above  which  only 
the  vascular  layer  of  the  allantois  extends  over  the  amnion,  closely 
adhering  to  it.  9.  Umbilic  cord.  10.  Left  fetal  tibia.  11.  Left  fetal 
carpus.  12.  Os  uteri  externum  and  cervix,  showing  the  cervical  canal 
directed  along  the  uterine  floor.     13.     Vagina.     14.  "Vulva. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  327 

in 

MANIFESTATIONS  OF  ABORTION  DISEASE 
WITHOUT  DEMONSTRABLE  ETIOLOGICAL 

FACTOR 

By  Jacob  Traum  and  George  H.  Hart 


From  the  information  given  in  the  foregoing  article,  it  should  be 
evident  that  a  very  high  percentage  of  abortion  disease  manifesta- 
tions of  cattle  is  associated  with  infection  by  the  Bacterium  abortum 
of  Bang.  It  has  also  been  established  that  a  certain  percentage  of 
abortions  is  due  to  other  causes.  In  some  instances  abortions  have 
been  observed  where  no  definite  cause  could  be  found  but  from  which 
the  Bacterium  abortum  and  other  infectious  agents  have  been  defin- 
itely eliminated.  Such  a  condition  has  existed  in  the  University  dairy 
at  Berkeley  and  a  report  of  our  work  on  these  animals  is  given  in  the 
following  pages. 

The  University  has  maintained  on  the  Berkeley  campus  for  a 
number  of  years  a  small  certified  dairy.  The  herd  has  consisted  of 
from  24  to  26  cows  in  the  milking  barn,  5  to  8  dry  cows,  and  1  bull. 
In  addition,  6  to  8  heifers  are  raised  each  year,  making  a  total  vary- 
ing between  45  and  60  head  of  animals  on  the  premises.  The  present 
bull  is  a  purebred  Ayrshire,  and  was  added  to  the  herd  in  August, 
1917.  He  was  raised  by  the  breeder  from  whom  he  was  purchased, 
was  one  year  old  on  September  6.  1917,  and  probably  never  was  in 
service  until  he  came  to  this  dairy. 

While  an  effort  has  been  made  to  keep  the  dairy  supplied  with 
milk  cows  by  raising  heifers,  it  has  been  necessary  to  purchase  cows 
from  time  to  time  in  order  to  keep  the  milk  supply  at  the  desired 
level.  In  1917,  for  example,  prior  to  the  purchase  of  the  present  bull, 
the  previous  animal  had  failed  to  get  the  cows  properly  bred.  A 
number  were  therefore  sold  to  the  butcher  and  ten  outside  animals 
purchased.  The  trouble  at  this  time  was  probably  due  to  lack  of 
exercise  on  the  part  of  the  bull.  He  would  not  serve  cows  in  estrum 
that  were  turned  in  with  him.  On  being  shipped  to  the  University 
Farm  at  Davis,  where  proper  exercise  could  be  given  him,  he  again 
became  a  satisfactory  breeder.  In  1918  no  additions  were  made  to 
the  herd.  In  1919  one  first  calf  heifer  was  added.  In  1920  four 
animals  were  purchased.    In  1921  to  October  no  additions  were  made. 


328  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 

In  all  there  were  15  cows  and  one  bull  added  during  the  period 
covered  by  this  report,  11  of  which  are  still  in  the  herd.  None  of  the 
five  cows  which  were  sold  for  slaughter  was  disposed  of  on  account 
of  breeding  difficulties.  Two  of  them  reacted  to  the  tuberculin  test, 
two  had  mammitis,  and  one  was  too  low  in  milk  production  to  be 
kept  in  the  dairy. 

In  the  purchase  of  cows  for  this  dairy  care  is  used  to  prevent 
the  introduction  of  tuberculosis.  The  animals  are  therefore  usually 
purchased  from  small  herds  close  by  or  from  herds  with  whose  history 
we  are  acquainted.  Even  with  these  precautions  we  were  not  entirely 
successful  in  keeping  out  tuberculosis  as  attested  by  the  fact  that 
two  of  the  animals  later  reacted  to  the  tuberculin  test.  This  is  the 
reason  for  keeping  the  herd  supplied  with  young  stock  raised  on  the 
premises. 

During  the  years  1917,  1918,  and  1919  breeding  difficulties  of 
more  or  less  magnitude  were  encountered,  such  as  an  occasional 
abortion,  retained  afterbirth,  cystic  ovaries,  and  delayed  estrual 
periods  requiring  expression  of  the  corpus  luteum.  Agglutination 
tests  with  Bacterium  abortum  as  an  antigen  made  from  time  to  time 
on  individual  animals  resulted  negatively.  Fleischner  and  Meyer  in 
1916  made  examinations  of  the  certified  milk  sold  in  the  bay  cities 
for  the  presence  of  tubercle  bacilli.  This  resulted  negatively,  but 
they  did  find  Bacterium  abortum  a  more  or  less  commonly  present 
organism.  From  the  University  Certified  Dairy  it  was  found  in  two 
of  three  lots  of  milk  collected  January  8,  18,  and  22,  1917,  respectively. 
Four  guinea-pigs  were  inoculated  with  each  lot  of  milk.  Two  of  the 
four  inoculated  with  the  first  lot  and  one  of  the  four  inoculated  with 
the  second  lot  showed  Bacterium  abortum  infection.  The  remaining 
nine  experimental  animals  were  negative. 

All  the  cows  of  milking  age  in  January,  1917,  except  Nos.  1864 
and  1869  in  Table  1,  had  been  disposed  of  by  August,  1920,  and  it 
was  decided  at  this  time  to  make  a  systematic  search  for  the  presence 
of  this  organism  in  the  dairy  animals. 

On  August  25,  1920,  blood  was  drawn  from  the  24  cows  in  milk, 
and  on  August  30  from  the  remaining  24  head  of  dry  cows,  young 
stock,  and  bull,  a  total  of  48  head  in  the  dairy  at  that  time.  These 
samples  were  tested  in  four  dilutions  against  three  strains  of  Bac- 
terium, abortum  antigen.  The  results  of  this  test  are  given  in  Table  1. 
It  will  be  observed  that  all  the  samples  gave  a  negative  reaction  to 
this  test,  except  the  blood  from  No.  2057.     The  serum  of  this  animal 

gave  a  +  -j-  reaction  in  0.04  c.c,  and  a (-  reaction  in  0.02  c.c, 

against  all  three  antigens. 


Bulletin  353] 


BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION 


329 


Table  1. — Agglutination  Tests  of  Blood  Samples  from  All  the  Animals  in 
the  Dairy  Herd,  August,  1920 


Antigen  1  Porcine 

Antigen  80  Bovine 

Antigen  104  Bovine 

Ear  Tag  No. 

0.04 

0.02 

0.01 

0.005 

0.04 

0.02 

0.01 

0.005 

0.04 

0.02 

0.01 

0.005 

1964.... 

-  + 

-  + 

-  + 

-  + 

-  + 

+  + 

+  - 

+  - 

+  - 

-  + 

- 

- 

-  + 

-  + 

-  + 

-  + 

+  + 

+ 

+  - 

- 

+  - 

-  + 

- 

- 

-  + 

-  + 

-  + 
+  + 

+  - 
+  - 

+  " 

-  + 

- 

1966 

1958 

2030 

1235 

1965 

1223 

2177 

1662 

1441 

2062 

1953 

2026 

2061 

- 

1967 

2029 

1801 

2055 

1442 

2175 

1960 



1957 



1864 

1663 

2155 

2171 

1968 

1869 

2170 

2057 



1438 

1445 

2143 



2142 

2027 

2181 

1969  (Bull) 

2178 

2179 

2180 

1435 



2060 

2063 

2144 

2173 

2154 



2183 

2182 

Explanation  of  symbols  in  table: 
—  Indicates  no  evidence  of  reaction. 

— h  Indicates  slight  sedimentation  but  supernatant  fluid  turbid. 

4 —  Indicates  more  sedimentation  than  — \-  but  still  a  faint  cloudiness  in  supernatant  fluid. 
-f-  +  Indicates  that  after  overnight  incubation  complete  agglutination  is  present. 
4-  Indicates  that  after  overnight  incubation  there  was  not  complete  agglutination,  but  on  standing 
for  24  hours  longer  the  tube  cleared  up. 


330  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Animal  No.  2057  was  an  unbred  heifer.  She  was  born  on  the  dairy 
in  November,  1917,  her  dam  being  cow  No.  2029,  purchased  when 
middle-aged,  just  prior  to  the  birth  of  this  calf  in  November,  1917. 
The  dam  is  still  in  the  dairy  and  has  had  the  following  breeding  record 
since  purchase : 

Gave  birth  to  calf  2057  shortly  after  arriving  at  the  dairy,  November,  1917. 

Bred  March  20,  1918,  and  calved  normally  December  28,  1918. 

Bred  March  20,  April  24  and  May  25,  1919.  Pregnant  to  last  service  and 
calved  normally  March   15,   1920. 

Bred  April  20  and  May  10,  1920.  Pregnant  to  last  service  and  calved  normally 
February  21,  1921. 

Bred  June  2,  1921.    Pregnant  to  this  service  and  calved  normally  March  7,  1922. 

Bred  May  20,  1922  and  pregnant  to  this  service. 

Heifer  No.  2057  later  aborted  and  will  be  discussed  as  Case  2. 

CASE    1 

Heifer  2154  was  the  first  animal  to  abort  after  the  general  examina- 
tion of  the  blood  of  all  the  animals  given  in  Table  1.  She  was  born 
February  15,  1919,  and  her  dam  was  Cow  1438,  which  animal  has 
aborted  twice  and  will  be  discussed  as  Case  5.  At  the  time  blood  was 
drawn  this  animal  was  not  thought  to  be  pregnant,  as  she  had  never 
been  bred  by  the  herd  bull.  During  the  spring  of  1920,  however, 
there  was  a  history  of  a  stray  bull  having  gotten  into  the  pasture 
for  a  few  days  where  this  heifer  and  some  other  animals  were  being 
kept. 

On  the  morning  of  September  16,  1920,  a  rider  for  the  water 
company,  whose  watershed  adjoins  our  range,  saw  a  heifer  in  the 
pasture  that  had  given  birth  to  a  premature  dead  calf,  but  did  not 
report  this  until  evening.  The  fetus  was  seen  and  covered  up  with 
loose  dirt  by  the  rider.  The  forenoon  of  this  same  day  the  dairy 
foreman  noticed  Heifer  2154  at  the  watering  trough  with  tail  held  out 
and  vulva  congested,  but  did  not  suspect  abortion  on  account  of  hav- 
ing no  breeding  record  on  the  animal.  The  following  day,  the  water 
company  employee  not  being  available,  a  search  was  made  of  the 
pasture,  but  no  fetus  was  found.  Coyotes  and  other  predatory 
animals  have  been  trapped  and  seen  in  this  pasture  and  their  presence 
may  explain  the  failure  to  find  the  fetus.  The  animals  in  the  pasture 
were  brought  to  the  barn  and  upon  examination  all  that  were  known  to 
be  pregnant  were  still  so.  On  examining  No.  2154,  although  only 
about  19  months  old,  the  hand  could  be  readily  passed  into  the 
vagina.  The  vaginal  walls  showed  some  congested  areas  but  the 
cervix  was  closed  so  that  one  finger  could  not  be  inserted  into  the 
cervical  canal. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  331 

The  vagina  was  douched  with  physiological  salt  solution,  after 
which  the  uterus  was  examined  per  rectum  and  found  to  be  enlarged. 
By  massaging  it  through  the  rectum  with  the  other  hand  in  the 
vagina  cupped  over  the  cervix,  a  small  amount  of  mucus  containing 
flakes  of  yellowish  pus-like  material  was  obtained. 

This  was  placed  in  a  sterile  bottle  and  taken  to  the  laboratory. 
Two  guinea-pigs,  Nos.  1731  and  1732,  were  inoculated  intra-abdomin- 
ally  September  18,  1920,  with  the  uterine  discharge  from  this  heifer. 
These  experimental  animals  were  chloroformed  February  7,  1921, 
and  found  to  be  in  a  normal  condition. 

This  heifer  was  bred  again  December  17,  1920,  February  22,  1921, 
and  March  28,  1921.  She  became  pregnant  to  the  last  service  and 
calved  normally  January  4,  1922. 

Agglutination  tests  made  on  her  blood  drawn  April  20  and  August 
20,  1921  and  June  12,  1922  resulted  negatively. 


CASE  2 

At  the  time  the  blood  samples  in  Table  1  were  taken  Heifer  2057 
was  pregnant  to  a  service  July  22,  1920.  She  had  previously  been 
bred  on  at  least  two  occasions,  June  10,  and  August  10,  1919.  From 
the  later  date  to  July  22,  1920,  she  had  been  on  a  hill  pasture  not 
exposed  to  a  bull. 

On  March  27,  1921,  while  in  the  pasture,  this  animal  aborted 
a  male  fetus  due  in  May  from  the  July  service  noted  above,  and  the 
placenta  was  retained.  The  animal  was  brought  to  the  barn  and 
isolated.  On  March  29,  1921,  the  membranes  were  removed  manually 
with  little  difficulty,  the  uterus  was  douched  and  several  ounces  of 
petroleum  oil  placed  in  it,  following  which  no  further  treatment  was 
found  necessary. 

The  fetus  was  found  in  the  pasture  at  4  p.m.,  March  27,  with  a 
few  blow-fly  larvae  deposited  about  the  nostrils,  and  was  brought  to 
the  labortory  at  6  :15  p.m.  On  autopsy  it  showed  sero-sanguineous 
fluid  infilteration  of  the  subcutis  especially  in  the  axillary  and  inguinal 
regions.  The  thoracic  and  abdominal  cavities  were  filled  with  blood- 
stained fluid.  Some  gelatinous  masses  were  present  around  the  heart. 
The  spleen  measured  20  by  5  by  2  centimeters  and  showed  several 
subcapsular  hemorrhagic  blotches.  The  stomach  contents  were  a 
stringy  turbid  mass  intermixed  with  gray  flakes  and  blood.  The 
intestines  were  apparently  normal. 


332  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Cultures  were  inoculated  the  same  evening  from  the  tissues  and 
fluids  as  follows: 

Stomach 

1.  Shake  2  per  cent  glycerin,  1  per  cent  glucose-agar  bouillon.  Discarded 
May   17,   1921.     No   growth. 

2.  Shake  2  per  cent  glycerin,  1  per  cent  glucose-agar  bouillon  plus  serum. 
No  change  until  April  12,  1921,  when  a  cloudiness  was  observed  on  the  surface. 
Subculture  and  microscopic  examination  failed  to  reveal  any  organism; 
probably  a  precipitation   of  the   serum. 

3.  Cooked  blood  agar  slant.     Discarded  May  17,  1921.     No  growth. 

4.  Cooked  blood  agar  slant.     Discarded  May  17,  1921.     No  growth. 

5.  Cooked  blood  agar  slant  in  C02  chamber.  Discarded  May  17,  1921. 
No  growth. 

6.  Cooked  blood  agar  slant  in  C02  chamber.  Discarded  May  17,  1921. 
No  growth. 

7.  Cooked  blood  agar  plate  in  C02.  Seven  colonies;  5  varieties  developed. 
April   2,   1921.     All  discarded  April   12,   1921. 

8.  Cooked  blood  agar  plate  in  C02  chamber.  Many  contaminations.  May 
4,   1921.     Discarded  April.  12,   1921. 

Liver 

1.  Shake  2  per  cent  glycerin,  1  per  cent  glucose-agar  bouillon.  Discarded 
May  12,  1921.     No  growth. 

2.  Shake  2  per  cent  glycerin,  1  per  cent  glucose-agar  bouillon  plus  serum. 
Cloudiness  developed  as  in  same  culture  from  the  stomach.  Subcultured  as 
above.  No  growth. 

3.  Cooked  blood  agar.     Discarded  May  17,  1921.     No  growth. 

4.  Cooked  blood  agar  slant  in  C02  chamber.  Discarded  May  17,  1921. 
No  growth. 

5.  Cooked  blood  agar  plate  in  C02  chamber.  Overgrown  with  contaminat- 
ing colonies  and  discarded,  April  12,  1921. 

Spleen 

1.  Shake  2  per  cent  glycerin,  1  per  cent  glucose-agar  bouillon.  Discarded 
May  17,  1921.     No  growth. 

2.  Shake  2  per  cent  glycerin,  1  per  cent  glucose-agar  bouillon  plus  serum. 
Discarded  May  17,  1921.     No  growth. 

3.  Cooked  blood  agar  slant.     Discarded  May  17,  1921.     No  growth. 

4.  Cooked  blood  agar  slant  in  C02  chamber.  Discarded  May  17,  1921. 
No  growth. 

Intestines   (Colon) 

1.  Shake  2  per  cent  glycerin,  1  per  cent  glucose-agar  bouillon.  Discarded 
May  17,  1921.     No  growth. 

2.  Shake  2  per  cent  glycerin,  1  per  cent  glucose-agar  bouillon.  Discarded 
May  17,  1921.     No  growth. 

3.  Cooked  blood  agar,  C02  chamber.     Discarded  May  17,  1921.     No  growth. 

4.  Two  per  cent  glycerin,  1  per  cent  glucose-agar  slant.  Discarded  May  17, 
1921.     No  growth. 

5  and  6.  Two  per  cent  glycerin,  1  per  cent  glucose-agar  slant  and  liver  agar 
in  C02  chamber.     Discarded  May  17,  1921.     No  growth. 

All  the  above-mentioned  cultures  except  those  placed  in  the  C02 
chamber  were  sealed  with  sealing  wax,  as  suggested  by  Theobald 
Smith.      Smears   were   made    from   the   stomach,   liver,    spleen,    and 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  333 

intestinal  contents  and  examined  in  stained  and  unstained  prepara- 
tions, but  no  vibrios  or  other  definite  microorganisms  could  be  seen. 
Five  guinea-pigs  (three  male  and  two  female)  were  inoculated 
March  29,  1921,  with  the  tissues  of  this  abort,  and  one  male  guinea-pig 
with  colostrum  from  the  udder  of  the  dam,  as  follows : 

Guinea-pigs  1778  and  1779  intraabdominally  with  intestinal  content. 
Guinea-pigs  1780  and  1781  intraabdominally  with  stomach  content. 
Guinea-pig  1782  intraabdominally  with  liver  and   spleen  emulsion. 
Guinea-pig   1783   intraabdominally  with   colostrum   from   dam. 

These  animals  were  bled  April  11,  1921,  and  the  blood  gave  a 
negative  agglutination  test  to  Bacterium  ab  or  turn  of  both  bovine  and 
porcine  origin.  Guinea-pig  1780  was  in  a  moribund  condition  April 
19,  1921,  and  was  bled  and  killed.  The  blood  gave  a  negative  agglutina- 
tion test.  Post-mortem  examination  showed  many  small  grayish 
specks  on  liver.  Lungs  contained  several  small  solidified  areas. 
Cultures  from  liver,  spleen,  and  lungs,  kept  under  observation  until 
July  18,  1921,  showed  no  growth  excepting  that  one  shake  culture 
developed  a  surface  growth  of  a  Gram-positive  coccus. 

The  blood  of  all  guinea-pigs  used  in  this  work,  except  Nos.  1731 
and  1732  in  Case  1  and  Nos.  1829  and  1830  in  Case  4,  was  tested  for 
the  presence  of  Bacterium  abortum  agglutinins  before  inoculation 
and  found  negative.  This  bleeding  was  done  from  the  ear  vein,  after 
the  method  of  Seddon69,  one-half  mil  of  blood  being  collected  in  4^2 
mils  of  carbolized  sodium  citrate  saline  solution. 

The  remaining  five  guinea-pigs  were  bled  and  killed  July  11,  1921. 
Their  blood  gave  a  negative  agglutination  test. 

Post-mortem  notes  on  these  animals  were  as  follows : 

Nos.   1778,  1779,   1781,  and   1782,  no  lesions  found. 
No.  1783,  no  lesions  found;  carcass  emaciated. 

April  27,  1921,  the  genital  tract  of  this  cow  was  examined  and 
found  to  be  normal.  Agglutination  tests,  as  shown  in  table  2,  were 
made  on  blood  drawn  from  this  animal,  in  addition  to  those  given 
in  table  1. 

A  sample  of  milk  was  taken  from  her  May  6,  1921,  and  inoculated 
into  guinea-pigs.  This  sample  consisted  of  first  milk  and  strippings 
in  approximately  equal  amounts,  total  about  one  quart  of  the  evening 
milking.  Six  hundred  mils  of  this  were  centrifuged  and  the  sediment 
inoculated  intra-abdominally  into  guinea-pigs  1795  and  1796  on  May  8, 
1921.  These  guinea-pigs  were  bled  July  14,  1921,  and  again  at  the 
time  of  slaughter,  August  30,  1921 ;  the  blood  gave  a  negative  agglu- 
tination test  to  Bacterium  abortum  of  both  porcine  and  bovine  origin. 


334 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA— EXPERIMENT  STATION 


Post-mortem  examinations  were  negative  except  for  some  adhesions 
from  peritonitis  in  guinea-pig  1795.  Cultures  made  from  the  spleens 
of  the  animals  on  blood-agar  remained  sterile. 

Table  2. — Abortion  Agglutination  Tests,  Cow  2057 


Antigen 

Mar.  27,  1921 

Apr.  18,  1921 

Apr.  28,  1921 

May  23,  1921 

No.  1  (Porcine) 

0.04 

+  + 
+  + 

+  + 
+  - 

+  - 

+  - 

0.02... 

0.01... 

_ 

0.005 

B-104  (Bovine) 
0.04. 

+  + 
+  + 

0.02 

0.01 

0.005 

No.  3  (Porc'ne) 

0.04 

+ 

0.02 

0.01 

0.005... 

No.  2  (Porcine) 

0.04 

+  + 
+  - 

+  + 
+  - 

0.02... 

0.01... 

0.005. ... 

B.  A.  (Bovine) 

0.04  ... 

+  + 
+  - 

+  + 
+  - 

0  02 

0  01 

0.005..  . 

No.  4  (Bovine) 
0  04 

+  + 
+  + 

0  02 

0  01 

0  005 

No.  80  (Bovine) 
0  04 

+ 

0  02 

0  01 



0  005 

This  cow  was  sold  to  the  butcher  and  slaughtered  on  May  26,  1921, 
because  she  was  the  only  animal  in  the  herd  giving  any  semblance  of 
what  might  be  termed  an  agglutination  reaction  to  Bacterium  abortum 
antigen.  Milk  was  again  taken  from  her  just  prior  to  slaughter  and 
inoculated  into  guinea-pigs  1817  and  1818  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
sample  taken  May  6,  1921,  with  negative  results. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  335 

Two  guinea  pigs,  Nos.  1819  and  1820,  were  inoculated  intraab- 
dominally  May  28,  1921,  with  scrapings  from  her  uterine  mucous 
membrane  and  supramammary  lymph  glands.  These  guinea  pigs 
were  bled  June  25,  1921,  and  again  on  July  14,  1921,  and  the  blood 
was  tested  against  Bacterium  dbortum  antigens  of  bovine  and  porcine 
origin,  with  negative  results.  They  were  bled  and  killed  August  30, 
1921.  Post-mortem  examinations  showed  them  to  be  normal.  Agglu- 
tination tests  made  on  their  blood  were  negative.  Cultures  made  on 
blood-agar  from  their  spleens  remained  sterile. 


CASE  3 

Cow  2301  was  raised  at  the  dairy  and  had  calved  normally  April 
18,  1918,  June  15,  1919,  and  April  30,  1920. 

Following  the  last  parturition  she  was  bred  June  28,  1920,  and 
became  pregnant  to  the  service.  She  was  therefore  two  months  preg- 
nant when  the  blood  samples  in  Table  1  were  taken.  On  March  30, 
1921,  this  cow  delivered  dead  twins  conceived  275  days  previously  on 
June  28,  1920.  This  pregnancy,  therefore,  terminated  a  few  days 
prematurely,  which  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  there  were 
twins. 

The  fetuses  were  male  and  female  and  the  tissues  and  organs 
appeared  normal.  The  membranes  were  normal  except  for  one  small 
necrotic  area  present  in  one  fetal  cotyledon. 

The  fetuses  were  taken  to  the  laboratory  for  further  examination. 

From  the  stomach  and  lungs,  respectively,  of  each  fetus  the  following 

cultures  were  made: 

Cooked  blood-agar  ^ 

2  per  cent  glycerin,  1  per  cent  glu-  I   „     ,    ,         ,    .        ,     ,    3 

cose  shake  agar  \  Sealed   and  abated 

Gentian  violet  fetus  medium  J 

Cooked  blood  agar  "j 

2  per  cent  glycerin,  1  per  cent  glu-  I   piacea    \n    io    per    cent    C02    cham- 

cose    agar    slant  >      ber  and  incubated 

Gentian   violet   fetus  medium 
Cooked  blood-agar  plate  J 

Smears  were  made  from  the  stomach  and  lungs  of  both  the  fetuses 
and  examined  in  stained  and  unstained  preparation.  No  definite 
organisms  could  be  found  in  them. 

All  the  cultures  from  the  male  fetus  remained  sterile,  as  well  as 
those  from  the  stomach  of  the  female  fetus.  The  cooked  blood-agar 
plate  and  the  fetus  medium  from  the  lung  of  the  female  fetus  under 
C02  showed  a  few  colonies  of  contaminating  organisms  {Bacillus  sub- 
tilis)  of  no  significance.    All  the  cultures  were  discarded  May  17,  1921. 


336  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 

On  March  31,  1921,  guinea  pigs  were  inoculated  intraabdominal^ 
with  tissues  of  the  fetuses  as  follows: 

Guinea  pig  1784.  Placenta  of  both  fetuses,  including  a  portion  of  the 
necrotic   area   mentioned   above. 

Guinea  pig  1785.     Stomach  contents  of  both  fetuses. 

Guinea  pig  1786.     Lungs  of  both  fetuses. 

Guinea  pigs  1784  and  1786  weje  bled  and  killed  July  2,  1921. 
Post-mortem  examination  of  No.  1784  showed  an  abscess  on  the  greater 
curvature  of  the  stomach  from  which  a  streptococcus  was  isolated. 
Guinea  pig  1785  was  bled  and  killed  July  13,  1921.  Post-mortem 
examinations  of  this  animal  and  of  No.  1786  were  negative.  Agglu- 
tination tests  made  on  the  blood  of  all  three  animals  were  negative. 


EXAMINATIONS  OF  MILK  SAMPLES  FROM  THE  HERD 

On  May  25,  1921,  milk  samples  were  taken  from  all  the  cows  in  the 
dairy  giving  milk  at  the  time  and  composite  samples  were  injected 
into  guinea  pigs.  The  samples  were  collected  as  shown  below,  and 
two  guinea  pigs  were  inoculated  with>each  sample,  making  a  total  of 
twenty  experimental  animals. 


MILK  SAMPLES  FROM  U.   C.  DAIRY  ANIMALS 

(Taken  from  evening  milking  May  25,  1921.  At  least  600  c.c.  samples 
centrifuged  May  26  and  sediment  inoculated  intraabdominally  into  guinea 
pigs  May  27,  1921.) 

Sample  1.  Composite  of  first  milk  and  strippings  in  approximtely  equal 
amounts  total  about  one  quart  from  cows  2027,  2178,  2299,  1869  and  1662, 
inoculated  into  guinea  pigs  1797  and  1798. 

Sample  2.  Ditto  from  cows  1968,  2055,  2063,  1960  and  1967,  inoculated  into 
guinea  pigs  1799  and  1800. 

Sample  3.  Ditto  from  cows  2029,  2301,  1864,  1435  and  1965,  inoculated  into 
guinea  pigs  1801  and  1802. 

Sample  4.  Ditto  from  cows  1438,  2298,  2300,  2030  and  2026,  inoculated  into 
guinea  pigs  1803  and  1804. 

Sample  5.  Ditto  from  cows  1223,  2060,  2296,  2177  and  2061,  inoculated  into 
guinea  pigs  1807  and  1808. 

Sample  A.  From  vat  after  milking  of  cows  2027,  2178,  2299,  1869,  1662, 
1868  and  2063,  inoculated  intraabdominally  guinea  pigs  1809  and  1810. 

Sample  B.  From  vat  after  milking  of  cows  2055,  1967,  2029,  2301,  1864, 
1960  and  1435,  inoculated  intraabdominally  guinea  pigs  1811  and  1812. 

Sample  C.  From  vat  after  milking  of  cows  1438,  1965,  2298,  2300,  2030, 
2026  and  1223,  inoculated  intraabdominally  guinea  pigs  1813  and  1814. 

Sample  D.  From  vat  after  milking  of  cows  2296,  2060,  2177,  2061,  2142, 
1957  and  1953,  inoculated  intraabdominally  guinea  pigs  1815  and  1816. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  337 

Six  of  these  guinea  pigs,  Nos.  1799,  1801,  1802,  1805,  1810,  and 
1816,  died  of  intercurrent  disease.  Blood  was  obtained  from  No.  1805 
June  16,  from  No.  1802  June  23,  and  from  No.  1801  June  25,  all  of 
which  gave  negative  agglutination  tests.  The  remaining  14  were 
bled  June  25,  July  14,  and  before  slaughter  August  27  and  30,  respec- 
tively. Agglutination  tests  made  on  these  blood  samples  against 
Bacterium  abortum  antigens  of  bovine  and  porcine  origin  all  resulted 
negatively. 

Post-mortem  notes  on  these  animals  were  as  follows: 


POSTMOKTEM  NOTES  ON  INOCULATED  GUINEA  PIGS 

Guinea  pigs  1797,  1798,  1800,  1803*  1804,  1806,  1807,  1808  and  1809.  Con- 
dition good;   no  lesions.  Cultured  spleen  on  cooked  blood-agar. 

Guinea  pig  1811.  Condition  good;  slight  adhesions  between  left  lung  and 
pleura.     Cultured  spleen  on  cooked  blood-agar. 

Guinea  pig  1812.  Condition  good;  no  lesions.  Cultured  spleen  on  cooked 
blood-agar. 

Guinea  pig  1813.  Condition  good;  left  lung  showed  adhesions  and  an  abscess. 
Cultured  spleen  and  lung  on  cooked  blood-agar. 

Guinea  pigs  1814  and  1815.  Condition  good;  no  lesions.  Cultured  spleen  on 
cooked  blood-agar. 

All  the  cultures  made  from  the  spleens  and  incubated  under  10 
per  cent  C02  pressure  remained  sterile  and  were  discarded  September 
23,  1921.  The  culture  made  from  the  abscess  in  the  lung  of  guinea- 
pig  1813  showed  a  growth  after  two  days  of  a  bipolar  organism  not 
considered  significant. 


CASE  4 

Cow  1662  was  raised  at  the  dairy.  First  calf  born  normally 
August  16,  1918.  Second  calf  born  normally  September  23,  1919. 
Third  calf  born  July  13,  1920.  At  this  parturition  the  afterbirth 
was  retained  and  had  to  be  treated  and  manually  removed.  The 
uterus  was  examined  August  28,  1920  and  found  to  be  apparently 
normal.  This  cow  was  bred  October  20  and  November  10,  1920,  and 
March  1,  1921,  becoming  pregnant  to  the  last  service.  Her  blood  was 
examined  as  shown  in  Table  1  and  again  April  26,  1921,  and  gave 
negative  agglutination  tests.  The  animal  was  examined  and  found 
pregnant  July  9.  In  this  examination  one  hand  was  placed  in  the 
rectum  and  the  other  in  the  vagina.  The  hand  in  the  vagina  clasped 
the  cervix,  fixed  it  and  exerted  some  traction  posteriorly. 

On  the  morning  of  July  29,  five  months  after  conception  and 
twenty  days  following  examination,  this  cow,  when  brought  into  the 


338  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

barn,  had  fetal  membranes  protruding  from  the  vagina,  but  a  search 
of  the  corral  failed  to  reveal  the  expelled  fetus,  probably  for  the  same 
reason  as  that  mentioned  in  Case  1.  At  4  p.m.  that  day  the  cow  was 
examined  and  the  fetal  membranes  removed.  The  fetal  cotyledons 
were  very  yellow  in  appearance.  The  chorion  had  a  light  pink  color, 
but  on  close  examination  this  color  was  found  to  be  streaked  with  yel- 
low. In  three  areas  about  four  inches  in  diameter  the  capillary  conges- 
tion was  very  marked,  being  unevenly  distributed  so  that  the  membrane 
appeared  mottled  with  reddish  spots  of  about  the  size  of  a  pea.  The 
membranes  appeared  perfectly  fresh  with  no  odor  or  evidence  of 
decomposition. 

Two  guinea  pigs,  Nos.  1829  and  1830,  were  inoculated  with  1  c.c. 
each  of  an  emulsion  obtained  by  grinding  small  pieces  of  tissue  from 
the  cotyledons  and  membranes  with  the  gelatinous  material  in  the 
membranes  and  a  small  amount  of  sterile  physiological  salt  solution. 

Blood  was  taken  from  these  guinea-pigs  by  bleeding  from  the  ear 
August  20,  1921,  and  the  agglutination  test  with  Bacterium  abortum 
antigens  of  bovine  and  porcine  origin  was  applied  to  it,  with  negative 
results. 

The  guinea  pigs  were  bled  again  and  killed  November  10,  1921. 
Both  were  normal  on  post-mortem  examination,  although  No.  1830 
was  in  poor  condition.  Agglutination  tests  made  on  the  blood  were 
negative.  Cultures  were  made  on  blood-agar  plates  from  the  spleen 
of  No.  1829  and  from  the  spleen  and  testicle  of  No.  1830  and  incubated 
under  10  per  cent  C02  pressure  in  a  glass  jar. 

The  blood-agar  plates  were  examined  at  the  end  of  four  days' 
incubation  in  the  C02  chamber  and  showed  only  a  few  contaminating 
colonies.  The  plate  from  the  testicle  of  No.  1830  showed  only  one 
colony  and  it  was  not  on  the  streaked  area.  These  plates  were  kept 
in  the  incubator  not  under  C02  for  three  days  longer  and  were  dis- 
carded November  22,  1921,  having  shown  no  significant  organisms. 


CASE  5 

Cow  1438,  the  dam  of  No.  2154,  Case  1,  was  born  in  the  dairy  in 
1914.  Her  first  calf  was  born  normally  in  January  or  February, 
1917.  Second  calf  born  normally  January  28,  1918.  Third  calf  born 
normally  February   15,   1919. 

Following  this  parturition  she  was  bred  in  May  or  June,  1919,  the 
exact  date  not  being  recorded.  Dec.  17,  1919,  she  aborted  twins  at 
about  7  months'  gestation,  and  the  afterbirths  were  retained,  necessi- 
tating treatment  and  manual  removal. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  339 

She  was  bred  again  on  February  14,  1920,  and  became  pregnant 
to  this  service.  The  agglutination  test  shown  in  Table  1  oh  her  blood 
was  negative.  She  calved  normally  November  10,  1920.  This  is  an 
unusually  good  milk  cow  and  she  was  not  bred  again  until  April  4, 
1921,  to  which  service  she  conceived. 

A  second  agglutination  test  was  made  on  blood  taken  from  the 
animal  April  26,  1921,  with  negative  results.  This  animal  was 
examined  for  pregnancy  by  the  bi-manual  method,  as  in  Case  4,  Sep- 
tember 15,  1921,  and  found  to  be  pregnant. 

During  the  night  of  September  25,  she  aborted  the  fetus  con- 
ceived April  4  and  had  retained  afterbirth  which  had  to  be  treated 
and  manually  removed  September  28,  1921. 

The  fetus  was  brought  to  the  laboratory  on  the  morning  of  Sep- 
tember 26,  1921,  and  cultures  were  made  from  the  stomach,  lung,  and 
thoracic  fluid  as  follows: 

Three   glycerin-agar   shake    cultures. 
Three  glycerin-agar  slant  cultures. 
Two   cooked  blood-agar  slant  cultures. 
Three  glycerin-agar  plate  cultures. 
One  blood-agar  plate. 

All  the  cultures  were  incubated  under  10  per  cent  C02  pressure. 
Smears  and  hanging-drop  preparations  made  from  the  fresh  material 
did  not  show  any  definite  organisms.  The  cultures  remained  sterile 
with  the  exception  of  two  large  white  colonies  on  one  plate  culture 
and  one  on  another,  which  were  clearly  of  no  significance.  The  cul- 
tures were  discarded  October  12,  1921,"  by  which  time  molds  had 
developed  on  the  plates,  but  nothing  in  the  tubes. 

Two  guinea-pigs,  Nos.  1843  and  1844,  were  inoculated  with 
stomach  contents,  thoracic  fluid  and  lung  of  the  fetus  September  21, 
1921.  Blood  taken  from  these  guinea-pigs  November  16,  1921,  gave 
a  negative  agglutination  reaction  with  Bacterium  abortum.  They 
were  bled  and  killed  December  8,  1921,  and  found  to  be  in  good 
condition  and  normal.  Their  blood  failed  to  react  to  Bacterium 
abortum  antigen.  Cultures  were  made  from  the  spleens  on  cooked 
blood-agar  and  glycerin-agar  and  incubated  under  10  per  cent  C02 
pressure  until  December  19,  1921,  but  remained  sterile  and  were 
discarded. 


340  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA— EXPERIMENT  STATION 


SUMMAEY  OF  THE  CASES 

In  considering  these  cases,  No.  1  is  interesting  from  the  fact  that 
her  dam  has  aborted  twice.  The  possibility  should  not  be  overlooked 
that  the  bovine  uterus  in  some  animals  is  inherently  hypersensitive 
to  overdistention  to  the  point  that  expulsive  contractions  take  place 
at  certain  stages  of  gestation,  resulting  in  premature  expulsion  of 
the  offspring,  as  has  been  observed  in  the  human  family. 

Case  2  attracted  attention  at  the  time  of  the  general  examination 
of  the  blood  of  all  the  animals  in  August,  1920.  While  her  blood 
serum  gave  an  agglutination  reaction  to  Bacterium  abortum  higher 
than  any  of  the  animals  in  the  herd,  it  still  never  reached  the  point 
where  it  could  be  considered  positive.  Its  agglutinating  properties 
increased  somewhat  between  August  30,  1920,  and  March  27,  1921, 

in  that  the \-  reaction  in  0.02  dilution  of  the  former  date  reached 

a  ~| — |-  in  the  same  dilution  on  the  latter  date.  Especial  significance 
was  given  to  this  on  account  of  the  fact  that  she  aborted  on  the  latter 
date.  The  history  of  the  animal  does  not  reveal  exposure  to  Bacterium 
abortum  infection,  and  the  large  amount  of  work  done  on  her  fails 
to  incriminate  Bacterium  abortum  or  any  other  infection. 

Case  3  is  of  least  significance  on  account  of  the  fact  that  there 
were  twins  and  birth  was  so  nearly  at  term.  Death  of  both  fetuses 
may  have  occurred  during  the  parturition,  as  no  attendant  was 
present,  and  there  may  have  been  posterior  presentations,  or  mechan- 
ical obstruction  of  the  umbilical  vessels  may  have  occurred. 

Cases  4  and  5  aborted  twenty  and  ten  days,  respectively,  after 
a  bimanual  manipulation  of  the  genital  organs  in  the  diagnosis  of 
pregnancy.  These  two  cases,  together  with  other  circumstantial  evi- 
dence, lead  us  to  suggest  that  such  examination  may,  under  certain 
conditions  at  present  unrecognized,  be  responsible  for  abortion.  It 
is  the  vaginal  portion  of  the  examination  on  which  we  place  the 
responsibility  if  any  can  be  placed  on  this  procedure.  Its  value  in 
the  diagnosis  of  pregnancy  in  some  cattle  is  so  great  that  it  can  not 
well  be  dispensed  with,  but  if  it  is  a  possible  cause  of  abortion,  it 
will  have  to  be  done  with  more  care  than  is  at  present  exercised  when 
the  opinion  is  so  generally  held  that  there  is  no  danger  of  examination 
causing  this  phenomenon.* 

*In  a  treatise  on  sterility  of  cattle  by  J.  Albrechtsen,1  of  Denmark,  translated 
into  German  in  1920  and  received  at  this  office  in  July,  1922,  the  statement  is  made 
that  even  not  very  thorough  or  long-continued  bimanual  examination  may  produce 
abortion  ("Selbst  nicht  sehr  griindliche  und  lang  dauernde  bimanuelle  Unter- 
suchungen  konnen  Abortus  hervorrufen. '  n 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  341 

All  the  cases  described  occurred  between  September  16,  1920,  and 
September  25,  1921,  a  period  of  about  one  year.  If  we  exclude  Case  3 
as  doubtful,  there  still  remain  four  definite  cases  of  abortion  in  one 
year  among  about  forty  animals  of  breeding  age — 10  per  cent  of  pre- 
mature expulsions  of  the  offspring  in  this  herd  without  demonstrable 
cause. 

OTHER    CASES    SHOWING    BREEDING    DIFFICULTIES 

In  addition  to  the  cases  reported  above,  Cow  1869  had  a  retained 
afterbirth  in  1919  and  Cows  1960  and  1965  had  retained  afterbirths 
in  1920.  Cow  1953  had  the  same  trouble  in  1921.  This  last  animal 
was  treated  in  1919  for  cysts  in  her  ovaries  and  for  retained  corpus 
luteum.  Following  her  first  calf,  June  29,  1918,  she  did  not  come 
in  heat  until  after  treatment  on  March  12,  1919.  She  was  then  bred 
March  15,  April  26,  and  May  28,  1919,  becoming  pregnant  to  the  last 
service.  She  was  born  in  1914  and  considerable  difficulty  was  experi- 
enced in  getting  her  pregnant  the  first  time. 

Following  the  conception  of  May  28,  1919,  she  calved  normally 
March  12,  1920.  She  was  bred  again  July  22,  1920,  to  which  service 
she  conceived  and  delivered  twins  April  18,  1921.  At  this  parturition 
one  of  the  fetal  membranes  was  retained  and  had  to  be  manually 
removed  forty-eight  hours  afterwards.  Little  difficulty  was  experi- 
enced in  removing  the  membranes,  but  considerable  discharge  from 
the  uterus  was  observed  April  27.  She  was  treated  April  29  and  30 
with  warm  uterine  injections  of  physiological  salt  solution  followed 
by  1  per  cent  Lugol's  solution,  after  which  the  discharge  ceased. 

FEEDING  OF  THE  HERD 
The  milking  cows  in  this  herd  are  fed  dry  feed  during  about  nine 
months  of  the  year,  from  about  June  15  to  March  15.  During  the 
remaining  three  months,  which  constitute  our  green  feed  season,  they 
are  allowed  to  run  on  hillside  pasture,  getting  practically  all  their 
feed  in  this  way.  The  dry  feed  consists  entirely  of  alfalfa  hay  as  a 
roughage,  with  a  varying  mixture  of  concentrates.  Beet,  pulp  and 
coconut  meal  have  been  regularly  furnished.  During  most  of  the 
period  covered  by  this  report  wheat  bran  has  been  used  as  a  third 
concentrate,  but  at  times  this  has  been  replaced  with  rolled  barley. 
The  dry  cows  and  young  stock  are  kept  on  pasture  during  all  the 
year,  it  being  sometimes  necessary  during  the  winter  to  feed  them  a 
small  amount  of  hay.  The  bull  is  kept  penned  up  during  most  of 
the  time  and  fed  dry  feed.  During  the  green-feed  season  he  is  usually 
given  a  few  weeks  on  pasture. 


342  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


CONDITION  OF  ANIMALS  TO  DATE 
On  June  12,  1922,  blood  was  again  taken  from  all  the  animals 
in  the  dairy  herd,  numbering  at  the  time  forty-two  head.  Agglutina- 
tion tests  made  on  these  samples  were  negative  in  every  instance. 
From  September  25,  1921  to  date  (August  1,  1922),  no  abortions  have 
occurred  on  the  dairy.  One  calf  was  born  dead,  but  at  full  term,  to 
cow  1869  on  May  25,  1922.  Cultures  made  from  this  calf  remained 
sterile  and  two  guinea  pigs  inoculated  with  the  lung  and  stomach  con- 
tents, respectively,  remained  negative  and  on  post-mortem  examin- 
ation August  2,  1922,  were  normal.  There  have  been  four  cases  of 
retained  afterbirth  in  this  time. 


OTHER  FACTOES  ASSOCIATED  WITH  BREEDING  DIFFICULTIES  AS 
POSSIBLE  CONTRIBUTING  CAUSES  OF  ABORTION 

A  wide  variety  of  causes  has  been  named  to  account  for  mani- 
festations of  abortion  disease,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  certain 
plants  on  the  range,  moldy  or  otherwise  spoiled  feed,  poisonous  sub- 
stances in  the  feed,  such  as  ergot,  injuries,  diseases  associated  with 
high  body  temperature,  and  the  impairment  of  breeding  ability  on 
the  part  of  the  bull.  In  recent  years,  research  has  brought  out  the 
possibility  of,  and  in  a  measure  definitely  demonstrated,  positive 
effects  on  the  reproductive  organs  of  diets  restricted  to  certain  plants, 
also  the  effects  of  vitamin  and  mineral  content  of  feeds  upon  the 
reproductive  processes.  This  is  the  case  even  though  the  feeds  may 
contain  all  the  necessary  proteins,  carbohydrates,  and  fats  to  con- 
stitute a  balanced  ration  and  sufficient  in  quantity  to  equal  what  is 
known  to  be  required  for  maintenance  and  production  of  normal 
bodily  functions.  While  some  of  the  above  factors  have  a  bearing 
on  the  general  problem  of  abortion,  there  has  been  a  tendency  in 
the  past  to  overestimate  the  importance  of  some  of  them,  usually  in 
an  effort  to  prevent  the  presence  of  true  infectious  abortion  becoming 
public  knowledge.  It  is  only  by  keeping  in  mind  all  known  factors 
regarding  the  disease  that  it  is  possible  to  ascertain  the  truth  in 
regard  to  individual  herds. 

Febrile  Diseases. — A  considerable  percentage  of  a  herd  of  cattle 
in  anthrax-infected  territory  may  develop  anthrax  with  very  high 
fever  for  several  days  and  be  saved  from  a  fatal  termination  by  the 
liberal  administration  of  anti-anthrax  serum.  During  and  immedi- 
ately following  the  disease,  a  certain  percentage  of  the  pregnant  cows 
may  abort.    One  would  be  justified  in  considering  the  high  fever  and 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  343 

the  general  disturbances  caused  by  the  disease  as  the  direct  cause  of 
the  abortions,  particularly  if  no  abortions  had  occurred  previously 
in  the  herd.  Abortions  have  been  observed  to  follow  attacks  of  con- 
tagious pleuro-pneumonia  and  foot-and-mouth  disease,  which  diseases 
are  accompanied  by  high  fever  and  marked  constitutional  disturb- 
ances. These  conditions  are  comparatively  rare,  the  latter  two  dis- 
eases not  existing  in  this  country,  and  one  would  not  be  justified  in 
attempting  to  explain  abortions  as  the  result  of  slight  febrile  dis- 
turbances accompanying  indigestion  or  other  minor  conditions. 

Injury. — In  regard  to  injury,  one  case  has  come  under  our  obser- 
vation in  which  the  owner  of  a  small  herd  of  cattle  milked  them  in 
an  uneven,  wooden-floored  stanchion.  One  cow  at  times  was  very 
nervous  during  milking,  and  one  evening,  on  becoming  more  so  than 
usual,  he  tied  her  hind  legs  with  a  rope.  This  made  her  worse  and 
she  finally  threw  herself  in  the  stanchion.  About  three  days  follow- 
ing, this  animal  aborted  a  seven-months'  fetus.  The  fetus  was  exam- 
ined by  us  for  the  presence  of  Bacterium  abortum  and  negative  results 
were  obtained  in  both  cultures  and  guinea  pig  inoculations.  However, 
stained  smears  from  the  stomach  showed  the  presence  of  vibrios, 
which  organism  has  been  found  to  be  the  probable  causative  factor 
in  abortion  in  rare  cases  in  cattle  and  sheep.  We  did  not  succeed 
in  getting  the  vibrios  to  grow  on  any  of  the  cultures. 

Some  weeks  later  an  agglutination  test  with  Bacterium  abortum 
antigen  was  made  of  the  blood  of  all  the  animals,  nine  in  number, 
on  this  place.  A  positive  reaction  was  obtained  in  only  one  cow, 
which  had  been  added  to  the  herd  since  the  abortion  occurred.  This 
case  could  therefore  have  been  readily  considered  an  abortion  due  to 
injury,  but  the  presence  of  vibrios  tends  to  throw  considerable  doubt 
on  this.  Abundant  evidence  is  at  hand  showing  cows  to  be  accident- 
ally or  intentionally  subjected  to  very  extreme  physical  exertion  and 
rough  treatment  without  any  ill  effects  to  the  pregnancy  then  existent. 

Poisonous  Plants,  Spoiled  Feed,  and  Alfalfa. — The  statement  that 
plants,  such  as  mistletoe,  acorns,  and  spoiled,  moldy,  rust-infected 
feed,  or  excessive  feeding  of  a  single  feed,  such  as  alfalfa,  are  causes 
of  abortion,  is  based  on  the  most  intangible  evidence,  and  if  any  of 
them  ever  cause  the  premature  expulsion  of  the  offspring,  it  certainly 
is  so  rare  an  occurence  as  to  be  a  negligible  factor  in  the  extreme  pre- 
valence of  this  disease  among  our  livestock. 

The  belief  that  the  ingestion  of  mistletoe  by  pregnant  cattle  will 
produce  abortion  seems  to  be  more  generally  held  by  livestock  owners 
in  this  state  than  is  the  case  with  any  other  plant.     A  supply  of  it 


344  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

was  therefore  collected  and  fed  to  two  pregnant  animals  in  the  Uni- 
versity Certified  Dairy  herd,  which  is  free  from  infectious  abortion. 
One  of  these  animals,  Cow  No.  2029,  was  pregnant  three  months  to 
a  service  April  20,  1922,  and  the  other  cow,  No.  2451,  was  pregnant 
five  months  to  a  service  February  24,  1922.  The  existence  of  preg- 
nancy was  confirmed  in  each  case  by  rectal  examination.  On  July  21, 
1922,  these  animals  were  fed  fourteen  pounds  each  of  mistletoe  and 
on  July  22  each  received  nineteen  pounds  additional.  Twelve  pounds 
of  the  material  remained  and  this  was  fed  to  cow  No.  2451  on  July  23, 
1922.  The  short  stems  with  the  leaves  attached  and  berries  just 
beginning  to  form  were  fed.  The  cattle  ate  the  plant  with  apparent 
relish  but  no  ill  effects  were  produced  by  it  that  could  be  observed. 
One  of  the  cows  had  just  been  dried  off,  the  other  was  in  milk.  A 
small  amount  of  the  plant  was  dropped  on  the  ground  from  the  con- 
tainers by  the  cows  during  feeding  and  not  ingested.  This  did  not 
exceed  a  total  of  two  pounds  b}^  each  animal.  No.  2029,  therefore, 
ingested  thirty-one  pounds  and  No.  2451  forty-three  pounds,  which 
we  feel  is  a  greater  quantity  of  this  plant  than  any  cow  on  the  range 
would  be  able  to  get  in  a  similar  period  of  time. 

In  regard  to  rust,  Harms28  recites  a  case  where  forty  cows  were 
fed  for  months  green  feed  which  was  rather  thoroughly  covered  with 
rust,  without  any  abortions  occurring.  Albrechts,22  as  a  result  of 
feeding  experiments  upon  pregnant  sheep  and  goats,  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  quantities  of  smut  (Tilletia  caries),  even  many  times 
as  large  as  would  be  consumed  in  ordinary  infected  food,  did  not 
cause  abortion.  Pusch,28  in  his  experiments  with  smut-infected  wheat 
upon  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  swine,  observed  no  ill  effect 
except  an  occasional  diarrhoea. 

A  few  years  ago  Haring  made  a  field  survey  in  this  state  concern- 
ing the  possible  effect  of  alfalfa  feeding  on  the  production  of  abortion 
and  sterility.  Reports  on  this  work  covered  1229  cows  fed  alfalfa 
alone,  among  which  there  were  11.07  per  cent  abortions  and  8.06  per 
cent  sterility;  167  cows  fed  chiefly  on  alfalfa,  in  which  there  were 
23.35  per  cent  abortions  and  11.38  per  cent  sterility;  355  cows  fed 
partly  on  alfalfa,  in  which  there  were  33.8  per  cent  abortions  and 
32.68  per  cent  sterility ;  and  452  cows  fed  no  alfalfa  at  all,  in  which 
there  were  28.32  per  cent  abortions  and  29.64  per  cent  sterility.  The 
information  on  which  these  figures  are  based  was  furnished  by  the 
cattle  owners  and  not  checked  by  veterinary  examination.  They  do 
not  indicate  that  the  feeding  of  alfalfa  has  any  influence  on  abortion 
disease. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  345 

Popular  suspicion  of  this  kind  has  largely  been  handed  down 
from  the  days  before  bacteriology  had  made  progress  in  elucidating 
the  nature  of  infectious  diseases,  and  earlier  literature  contains  many 
case  reports  throwing  suspicion  on  these  agents  as  causes  of  abortion 
which  is  not  substantiated  by  any  well-planned  experiments.  Even 
ergot,  the  most  widely  recognized  substance  as  a  possible  factor  in 
abortion,  will  not  cause  this  phenomenon  unless  it  has  been  ingested 
in  quantities  sufficient  to  endanger  the  life  of  the  animal.  It  has  the 
effect  of  stimulating  uterine  contractions  after  labor  begins  but, 
according  to  experiments  on  animals,  does  not  initiate  uterine  con- 
tractions during  the  gestation  period.  Thus,  Albrecht's  investiga- 
tions on  small  pregnant  ruminants22  demonstrated  that  twice  the 
therapeutic  dose  of  ergot  had  no  apparent  ill  effects.  Four  or 
five  times  the  therapeutic  dose  produced  a  transient  effect  causing 
diarrhoea,  inappetence,  and  muscular  tremors,  but  no  abortions. 

Impaired  Breeding  Ability  on  the  Part  of  the  Bull. — This  is  a 
definite  and  sometimes  serious  cause  of  reduced  breeding  efficiency. 
Such  a  bull  may  serve  cows  fairly  well  or  be  very  slow  in  service  and 
only  a  small  percentage  of  the  cows  bred  to  him  will  become  pregnant. 
This  may  be  followed  by  delayed  reappearance  of  estrum  and,  after 
six  or  eight  months,  a  high  percentage  of  the  cows  will  be  found  not 
with  calf  and  low  in  milk  production.  Such  a  condition  occurred  at 
the  University  Certified  Dairy  with  the  herd  bull  in  1917  and  with 
the  present  bull  in  the  winter  of  1920-21.  In  both  cases  it  was  due 
to  improper  handling  of  the  animal  and  lack  of  sufficient  exercise. 
Over  a  period  of  about  six  or  eight  months  both  bulls  became  very 
inefficient  breeders,  but  both  returned  to  a  normal  condition  after 
being  given  proper  exercise  and  care.  In  the  meantime  a  considerable 
percentage  of  the  cows  became  low  in  milk  production  or  dry  with- 
out being  pregnant.  The  problem  of  properly  exercising  the  bull  on 
the  campus  is  difficult  because  so  manj^  pedestrians  walk  through  the 
pastures  and  become  frightened  at  sight  of  the  animal,  so  that  he 
must  be  kept  in  a  small  corral  near  the  dairy. 

The  Effect  of  Diet  on  Reproduction. — In  this  field  some  definite 
scientific  facts  have  been  elucidated  in  recent  years.  The  role  of  the 
secondary  dietary  essentials,  commonly  termed  vitamins,  and  the 
importance  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  inorganic  substances  in  the  diet, 
particularly  calcium  and  phosphorus,  on  the  reproductive  processes 
have  been  but  recently  recognized.  The  correlation  of  the  knowledge 
at  hand  and  additional  research  will  be  necessary  before  their  rela- 
tion to  reproduction  is  fully  understood   and  practical  procedures 


346  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

deduced  from  them.  Nevertheless,  the  work  of  Hart,  McCollum, 
Steenbock,  and  Humphrey29- 30  has  definitely  shown  that  certain 
rations,  particularly  a  diet  restricted  to  the  oat  and  the  wheat  plant, 
even  though  balanced,  will  be  inadequate  for  the  nutrition  of  breeding 
cows,  to  the  point  that  the  offspring  will  be  born  prematurely  and 
either  dead  or  in  a  very  weakened  condition. 

Evans,19  in  his  studies  on  the  estrous  cycle  of  white  rats,  has  been 
able  by  restricted  diets  to  keep  these  animals  more  or  less  permanently 
in  estrum  and  to  delay  evidence  of  estrum  indefinitely. 

Forbes21  has  shown  in  his  studies  on  the  mineral  metabolism  of  the 
milk  cow  that  heavily  producing  animals  during  lactation  are  usually 
utilizing  in  their  bodies  and  giving  off  with  the  milk  more  calcium 
and  prosphorus  than  they  are  ingesting  with  their  food. 

The  work  of  Meigs45  indicates  that  this  condition  when  long  con- 
tinued may  result  in  milk  yields  greatly  below  previous  production 
records  of  the  individual  animals.  He  was  able  under  certain  con- 
ditions to  enable  such  animals  to  attain  previous  production  records 
by  proper  feeding  during  a  reasonably  long  dry  period. 

Hess31  has  demonstrated,  in  his  study  of  rickets  in  children  in 
New  York  City,  that  the  amount  of  vitamins  in  cows'  milk  is  greater 
when  these  animals  are  on  green  feed  than  when  stall-fed  on  dry 
material.  The  reduction  on  changing  to  dry  feed  begins  to  appear 
shortly  after  the  green  feed  is  removed,  showing  that  the  dairy  cow 
cannot  store  up  these  substances  in  her  body,  and  that  they  must 
be  regularly  supplied  with  the  feed.  Milk  secretion  and  reproduction 
processes  are  very  closely  associated  with  each  other. 

These  various  conditions  may  enhance  the  virulence  of  infectious 
abortion  when  it  gains  access  to  a  herd  of  cattle.  At  the  present  time 
means  are  at  hand  to  determine  the  presence  or  absence  of  infectious 
abortion,  and,  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  where  other  causes  were 
suspected,  investigation  has  shown  the  presence  of  the  infectious 
causative  organism.  All  cases  of  abortion  should  therefore  be  con- 
sidered as  infectious  abortion  unless,  by  means  of  bacteriological  or 
serological  examination,  or  both,  this  can  be  eliminated. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  347 

IV 

DISEASES  OF  THE  GENITAL  TRACT  OF  CATTLE 
FREQUENTLY  ASSOCIATED  WITH  ABORTION 

By  FRED  M.  HAYES 


The  disorders  of  the  reproductive  organs  of  the  male  and  female 
of  the  bovine  species  have  become  a  serious  menace  to  the  cattle 
industry  and  of  increasing  importance  with  the  development  of  pure- 
bred live  stock.  The  perpetuation  of  breeds,  strains,  and  characters 
is  obviously  dependent  upon  the  mating  of  individuals  possessing 
healthy  genital  organs  capable  of  fulfilling  their  function  of  repro- 
duction. Unfortunately  attainment  of  this  ideal  is  often  difficult 
because  of  the  existence  of  a  variety  of  diseased  conditions  in  the 
essential  organs.  In  the  following  consideration  of  some  of  the  more 
important  disorders  of  the  genital  tract  of  cows,  the  effect  of  these 
diseases  upon  breeding  efficiency  must  be  kept  in  mind. 

Most  of  the  diseases  of  the  generative  apparatus  which  prevent 
or  delay  conception  in  breeding  animals  are  undoubtedly  due  to 
infectious  agents.  The  preponderance  of  evidence  incriminates  Bac- 
terium abortion  as  the  most  important  factor  in  at  least  starting  these 
infections.  Other  organisms  may  be  responsible  for  part  of  these 
affections  or  be  associated  with  Bacterium  abortum  in  the  production 
of  them.  The  belief  that  most  of  the  diseases  mentioned  in  the  follow- 
ing pages  are  closely  related  to  the  specific  abortion  infection  is  so 
common  that  they  are  frequently  grouped  as  allied  to,  or  sequelae  of 
the  type  infectious  abortion  disease  caused  by  the  Bang  organism. 

RETAINED  PLACENTA  {Placentitis) 
Retention  of  the  fetal  membranes  constitutes  one  of  the  common 
symptoms  of  uterine  infection.  That  this  infection  is  caused  largely 
by  Bacterium  abortum  seems  evident  from  the  fact  that  retained 
afterbirth  is  common  in  herds  in  which  abortion  is  known  to  exist, 
and  from  the  fact  that  Bacterium  abortum  is  responsible  for  initiating 
an  inflammation  of  the  fetal  and  maternal  cotyledons  that  is  the  cause 
of  at  least  75  per  cent  of  the  abortions  in  cattle.  The  specific  abortion 
germ  apparently  is  not  isolated  with  any  greater  frequency  in  these 
cases  than  are  species  of  streptococci,  staphylococci,  and  organisms  of 
the  colon-aerogenes  group. 


348  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

The  bovine  fetal  membranes  and  manner  of  attachment  to  the 
mother  are  more  complex  than  in  other  species  of  animals.  At  the 
point  where  the  fertilized  ovum  lodges  in  the  uterine  horn  there  is 
soon  established  a  marked  change  in  the  character  of  the  mucosa, 
especially  at  certain  points.  Segmentation  of  the  ovum  has  already 
begun  and  the  developing  fetal  membranes  become  differentiated  with 
the  formation  of  an  outer  layer  known  as  the  chorion,  the  essential 
membrane  which  joins  the  fetus  to  the  uterus  of  the  mother.  This 
union  is  accomplished  in  bovines  by  the  formation  by  the  chorion  of 
cotyledons  that  unite  with  already  existing,  but  greatly  enlarged, 
cotyledons  on  the  uterine  mucosa  of  the  mother,  the  latter  known  as 
the  maternal  cotyledons  and  the  former  as  the  fetal  cotyledons.  The 
fetal  cotyledons  are  tufts  of  capillaries  lined  with  a  single  layer  of 
epithelial  cells.  These  tufts  fit  into  corresponding  crypts  of  the 
maternal  cotyledons,  whose  crypts  are  also  lined  with  a  single  layer 
of  epithelial  cells.  These  points  of  union  constitute  in  the  bovine 
the  only  paths  for  the  transmission  of  nutrition  and  waste  material. 

There  is  at  no  time  during  the  normal  development  of  a  fetus 
any  real  adhesion  between  the  maternal  and  fetal  cotyledons.  The 
crypts  and  tufts  are  only  contiguous  or  in  intimate  contact.  At  the 
moment  that  umbilic  vessels  are  severed  at  the  time  the  fetus  is 
expelled  the  fetal  coverings  become  dead  tissue.  The  vessel  walls 
which  have  been  distended  by  the  circulating  blood  collapse  because 
of  the  separation  of  the  fetus  from  its  membranes.  Under  normal 
conditions  the  collapse  of  the  capillaries  of  the  tufts  of  cotyledons  is 
sufficient  to  bring  about  separation  in  a  short  time  at  these  points  of 
union.  The  normal  involution  of  the  uterus  combined  with  the  weight 
of  the  fetal  membranes  soon  expels  the  contents  of  the  uterus. 

Under  the  influence  of  an  inflammation  induced  by  some  form  of 
infection  there  may,  however,  develop  a  premature  separation  of  the 
membranes  or  a  retention  of  them  after  the  fetus  is  expelled.  Either 
condition  can  only  come  about  through  a  previously  existing  inflam- 
mation of  the  placenta  and  the  uterine  mucosa,  particularly  of  the 
cotyledons  of  each. 

The  pathology  of  infectious  inflammation  in  the  pregnant  womb 
is  not  different  from  such  an  inflammation  in  other  tissues.  There 
is  an  engorgement  of  the  arterial  capillaries,  stasis  in  the  venous 
capillaries,  with  resulting  accumulation  of  red  and  white  corpuscles, 
together  with  a  migration  of  the  latter,  desquamation  of  the  epithelial 
cells,  and  transudation  of  inflammatory  fluid.  This  material  consti- 
tutes the  exudate  which  accumulates  in  the  chorionic  space  in  such 


Bulletin  353] 


BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION 


349 


quantities  that  it  is  frequently  seen  accompanying  or  following  abor- 
tion or  retained  placenta.  Whether  the  membranes  are  to  be  retained 
in  the  presence  of  the  inflammation  depends  upon  the  stage  and 
progress  of  the  infection  in  relation  to  the  period  of  pregnancy. 
Retention  is  less  likely  to  take  place  when  abortion  occurs  in  the  early 
stages  of  pregnancy,  because  the  development  in  size  of  the  cotyle- 
dons in  the  bovine  uterus  is  gradual,  depending  upon  the  normal 


*'l4 


Fig.  4.— A  cotyledon  from  a  pregnant  uterus.  (After  special  report  on 
Diseases  of  Cattle,  U.  S.  D.  A.)  A,  Uterine  mucosa;  B,  Maternal  cotyledon 
showing  crypts;  C,  Fetal  cotyledon  showing  tufts;  E,  Chorion. 

growth  and  enlargement  of  the  fetus  and  its  need  for  nutrition,  and 
the  branches  of  the  tufts  of  the  placenta  are  not  so  long  and  complex, 
nor  the  crypts  of  the  maternal  cotyledons  so  deep  in  the  early  stages. 
Later  on,  however,  when  the  size  and  complexity  of  the  placental  areas 
grow,  the  bond  of  union  is  firmer  and  the  placenta  more  likely  to  be 
retained  even  though  the  calf  is  born  at  full  time.  Retention  then 
depends  upon  an  abnormal  union  between  the  maternal  and  fetal 
cotyledon.    In  the  cow,  according  to  W.  L.  Williams,90  there  are  about 


350  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

one  hundred  functioning  cotyledons  in  the  gravid  uterus.  Not  all 
of  these  are  commonly  affected.  The  number  affected  naturally 
depends  upon  the  progress  and  severity  of  the  infection.  When  dis- 
ease involves  only  a  few  of  them  retention  may  not  take  place  because 
the  weight  of  the  detached  parts  may  separate  those  only  slightly 
affected. 

The  symptoms  of  retained  placenta  are  usually  not  difficult  of 
recognition.  After  the  fetus  is  expelled  normally  or  abnormally, 
portions  of  the  placenta  may  be  seen  protruding  from  the  vulva. 
This  observation  is  not,  however,  a  safe  one  upon  which  to  base  a 
diagnosis,  because  in  a  uterus  that  is  flaccid  and  lacking  in  tone  the 
relaxation  of  its  walls  may  be  great  enough  to  cause  a  withdrawal 
of  the  membranes  from  the  outside  to  the  inside,  at  least  as  far  as 
to  the  cervical  canal.  A  similar  condition  may  develop  when  the 
adhesions  of  the  membranes  are  located  in  the  ovarian  end  of  the 
uterus  only.  Obviously  the  retention  of  the  membranes  in  such  cases 
as  these  constitutes  a  more  serious  condition  since  it  may  not  be 
recognized  before  more  serious  complications  intervene.  As  soon  as 
the  fetal  membranes  are  severed  from  the  fetus  they  become  a  dead 
mass  and  undergo  putrefaction  through  the  invasion  of  contaminating 
organisms  entering  at  the  time  of  birth  or  already  existing  in  the 
uterus.  In  from  forty-eight  to  seventy-two  hours  after  the  membranes 
are  retained  decomposition  may  be  noted  by  a  fetid  odor  and  perhaps 
by  a  vaginal  discharge  of  suppurative  material  containing  shreds  of 
placental  tissue.  "Without  treatment  the  uterus  of  the  rugged  cow 
may  continue  to  expel  the  decomposing  material  for  a  long  period  of 
time  without  apparent  serious  disturbance  to  her  general  condition. 
In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  there  develops  within  the  generative 
organs  pathological  changes  that  often  result  in  sterility.  In  the 
less  rugged  cow  the  retention  and  decomposition  of  the  membranes 
with  the  accompanying  metritis  and  absorption  of  pus  soon  bring  on 
symptoms  of  systemic  disturbances  characterized  by  lack  of  appe- 
tite, fever,  cessation  of  milk  flow,  arched  back,  fixed  abdominal 
muscles,  and  straining.  These  symptoms  are  indicative  of  the  devel- 
opment of  a  metritis  or  metro-peritonitis  from  which  latter  a  large 
percentage  of  the  cows  die  even  under  treatment  by  a  veterinarian. 
If  death  does  not  take  place  there  is  strong  probability  that  incurable 
sterility  will  develop.  Stockmen  must  recognize  that  retained  after- 
births constitute  a  very  serious  menace  in  that  the  cow  may  die  or 
her  future  breeding  efficiency  be  imperiled. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  351 

The  treatment  of  retained  placenta  is  essentially  the  work  of  a 
veterinarian.  The  condition  described  above  is  fraught  with  so  many 
complications  and  consequences  that  only  the  trained  veterinarian 
is  capable  of  reducing  the  fatalities  and  the  breeding  difficulties  to  a 
minimum. 

There  has,  however,  been  a  difference  of  opinion  among  veterin- 
arians, who  have  had  wide  experience  in  the  treatment  of  retained 
placenta  as  to  the  details  ot  treatment.  Investigation  and  experience 
have  demonstrated  that  there  is  no  one  line  of  treatment  that  will  do 
for  every  case.  The  individual  cow  must  be  treated  in  the  manner 
suggested  by  the  extent  and  progress  of  the  placentitis,  and  also  upon 
the  basis  of  the  resistance  of  the  particular  cow  in  question.  The 
measures  applied  to  the  cow  with  a  strong  constitution  might  mean 
certain  death  to  a  less  rugged  individual. 

Over  the  time  and  manner  of  the  manual  removal  of  the  retained 
placenta  much  controversy  has  arisen.  Some  attempt  the  removal 
of  the  placenta  by  forcible  traction  under  any  conditions,  while  others 
make  it  a  rule  not  to  attempt  a  removal  until  at  least  forty-eight  hours 
after  the  birth  of  the  calf,  provided  of  course,  the  uterus  is  under- 
going involution.  Here  again  this  part  of  the  treatment  depends 
upon  the  conditions  found  in  the  individual  case. 

Numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  cause  the  afterbirth  to  be 
expelled  by  some  artificial  means  or  through  the  use  of  drugs  admin- 
istered internally.  There  is  no  satisfactory  evidence  that  any  drugs 
will  immediately  detach  the  adhering  cotyledons.  In  1917,  R.  R. 
Shaw70  described  a  method,  with  a  report  of  three  cases,  of  injecting 
normal  salt  solution  into  the  ends  of  ruptured  umbilical  vessels.  This 
method  has  never  been  employed  by  us,  neither  have  we  seen  further 
reports  on  its  use  and  value.  From  a  study  of  the  pathology  of 
retained  placenta,  it  is  apparent  that  this  method  of  procedure  would 
have  limitations  as  great  as  any  other  form  of  removal. 

In  the  manual  extraction  of  the  retained  membranes  the  operator 
must  realize  that  under  the  existing  inflammation  any  undue  tearing 
away  of  the  adhering  cotyledons  may  so  denude  the  surface  of  the 
uterine  mucosa  that  fresh  portals  of  entry  of  infection  may  be 
opened  up,  with  the  consequent  danger  of  absorption  of  the  pus. 
Unless  the  membranes  can  be  detached  with  comparative  ease  it  is 
much  better  to  allow  them  to  remain  and  to  douche  the  uterus  with 
some  non-irritating  sterile  fluid  to  remove  accumulated  pieces  of 
placenta  and  pus  that  may  act  as  food  material  for  the  organisms  if 
left  in  the  uterus.  Douching,  however,  is  not  applicable  to  every 
case  of  retained  afterbirth.    An  accurate  diagnosis  must  be  made  as 


352  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

to  the  size  of  the  cervical  opening  and  the  contractile  powers  of  the 
uterine  walls.  The  douche  should  be  applied,  not  for  the  purpose 
of  disinfecting  the  uterine  cavity,  because  this  is  practically  an  im- 
possibility, but  for  the  purpose  of  washing  out  the  material  which 
might  be  absorbed  or  furnish  nutrition  for  the  bacteria.  Care  should 
be  exercised  that  the  return  flow  of  the  fluid  is  unobstructed  and  that 
the  uterus  is  able  to  expel  it,  or  can  be  so  handled  through  the 
rectum  as  to  empty  it  of  the  fluid  injected. 

The  absence  of  a  rupture  must  be  ascertained  before  any  fluid  is 
introduced  into  the  womb.  Fatal  consequences  from  peritonitis 
usually  follow  douching  of  a  ruptured  uterus. 

The  saline  solution  should  be  used  as  hot  as  the  hand  will  stand 
and  allowed  to  flow  in  and  out  of  the  uterus  until  the  fluid  coming 
out  is  clear.  After  the  daily  application  of  this  form  of  douche  for 
two  or  three  days  the  membranes  may  often  be  removed  with  little 
difficulty.  Another  very  satisfactory  method  of  treating  the  retained 
placenta  without  removing  it  immediately  consists  of  injecting  about 
one  pint  of  sterile  neutral  mineral  oil  into  the  cavity,  once  a  day  for 
two  or  three  days.  The  oil  is  soothing  and  experience  shows  that 
decomposition  of  the  membranes  is  prevented  or  considerably  delayed 
by  its  use.  There  is  apparently  little  need  for  the  use  of  boric  acid 
or  iodoform  in  combination  with  the  oil.  The  protruding  membranes 
should  never  be  allowed  to  hang  any  distance  from  the  vulva.  The 
hind  parts  of  the  cow,  and  many  times  the  udder,  are  contaminated 
when  in  contact  with  the  dirty  fetal  membranes.  The  exposed  mem- 
branes also  invite  the  attack  of  extraneous  organisms,  which  bring 
about  a  decomposition  that  may  extend  past  the  cervix  and  into  the 
womb,  and  complicate  the  infection  already  present.  The  membranes 
should  be  slightly  pulled  from  the  vulva  and  clipped  off. 

Before  the  hand  is  introduced  into  the.  vagina  and  uterus  for  the 
purpose  of  removing  an  afterbirth  or  making  a  diagnosis,  it  is  abso- 
lutely essential  that  sanitary  precautions  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
introduction  of  contaminating  organisms  from  the  outside.  The 
external  parts  of  the  cow  around  the  anus,  vulva,  buttocks,  escutcheon, 
and  tail,  should  be  thoroughly  scrubbed  with  warm  water  and  soap 
and  this  operation  followed  by  an  application  of  a  disinfecting  solu- 
tion. The  hands  and  arms  should  likewise  be  scrubbed  with  water 
and  soap ;  the  finger  nails  trimmed  and  dirt  removed  from  beneath 
the  nails.  The  arms  and  hands  should  be  well  lubricated  with  oil 
and  it  is  well  at  this  stage  to  introduce  about  one  pint  of  neutral  oil 
into  the  uterus  with  a  soft  rubber  catheter,  so  that  sufficient  lubri- 
cation will  be  available  to  protect  the  inflamed  surfaces  of  the  cervix 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  353 

and  uterus  against  undue  irritation  by  manipulations  with  the  hand. 
If  the  examination  discloses  the  fact  that  there  are  numerous  cotyle- 
dons still  adherent  it  may  be  advisable  to  delay  the  manual  removal 
and  introduce  more  oil,  leaving  enough  of  the  membranes  lying  in 
the  cervix  to  aid  in  keeping  the  latter  dilated.  Attempts  must  be 
made  to  remove  the  placenta,  however,  when  there  is  danger  of  the 
cervix  contracting  and  imprisoning  parts  of  it.  In  our  experience  a 
condition  of  this  sort  is  more  likely  to  produce  an  unfavorable  out-' 
come  than  the  forcible  tearing  away  of  the  adhering  placenta,  pro- 
vided the  latter  is  done  as  carefully  as  possible. 

In  cases  in  which  there  has  been  considerable  necrosis  of  the 
membranes  and  particularly  of  the  maternal  cotyledons,  the  hot  saline 
douche  should  be  carefully  introduced.  Highly  inflamed  uteri  that 
have  contained  a  putrefying  mass  for  several  days  are  easily  ruptured 
by  douching  and  by  exploration  with  the  hand.  After  siphoning  off 
the  fluid  and  drying  the  cavity  of  the  uterus  as  nearly  as  possible, 
a  capsule  full  of  equal  parts  of  iodoform  and  boric  acid  may  be 
emptied  into  the  uterine  cavity  or  one  pint  of  neutral  oil  introduced 
with  a  soft  rubber  catheter.  When  the  membranes  have  come  away 
under  some  of  the  treatments  discussed  above,  the  uterus  cleansed, 
and  the  oil  or  powders  introduced,  the  treatment  for  retained  placenta 
per  se  has  terminated.  This  latter  statement  does  not  mean,  however, 
that  there  are  not  other  conditions,  which  were  in  the  main  respon- 
sible for  the  retention,  that  may  need  further  attention  if  the  animal 
is  to  become  a  regular  breeder  again. 

The  earlier  expert  attention  is  given  to  the  treatment  of  retained 
afterbirth  the  more  probability  there  is  that  the  life  of  the  cow  will 
be  saved,  her  breeding  efficiency  remain  undiminished,  and  her  milk 
supply  affected  to  the  minimum.  It  is  impossible  within  the  space 
of  this  bulletin  to  go  into  the  detail,  of  the  pathology  of  the  many 
different  conditions  which  the  veterinarian  recognizes  under  the  gen- 
eral term  of  retained  placenta.  If  the  cattle  owner  is  without  com- 
petent veterinary  service  it  is  much  better  for  him  to  keep  his  hands 
entirely  out  of  the  uterine  cavity  in  these  cases  and  confine  his  treat- 
ment to  the  douching  of  the  vagina  with  hot  saline  solutions  once 
daily.  One  potent  cause  of  sterility  in  the  past  and  at  the  present 
is  interference  by  the  livestock  owner  with  retained  placenta  without 
the  requisite  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  and  pathology  of  the  genital 
tract  of  cows  and  of  sanitary  procedure.  Especially  has  harm  been 
wrought  by  the  often  advocated  douching  of  the  uterus  with  strong 
disinfectants. 


354  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


METRITIS  AND   ENDOMETRITIS 

These  terms  designate  an  inflammation  of  the  uterus  proper.  The 
types  of  inflammation  in  this  organ  and  the  parts  of  the  organ 
affected  may  vary  to  a  considerable  extent,  probably  dependent  upon 
the  predominating  infective  organism.  Usually  a  catarrhal  and  a 
suppurative  metritis  may  be  distinguished,  the  later  frequently  result- 
ing in  and  constituting  a  pj^ometra.  In  some  cases  where  the  mucosa 
only  is  involved  the  term  endometritis  is  applied.  It  is  always  diffi- 
cult, however,  to  determine  clinically  the  extent  of  the  inflammation 
and  tissues  involved.  In  every  case  of  abortion  and  retained  after- 
birth some  form  of  metritis  exists.  It  may  involve  only  the  endo- 
metrium or  it  may  include  the  muscular  walls  of  the  uterus  and  even 
the  serous  surface. 

The  cause  of  these  conditions  has  not  been  satisfactorily  worked 
out  from  a  bacteriological  point  of  view.  Numerous  types  of  organ- 
isms have  been  found  in  diseased  uteri  but  their  etiological  significance 
has  not  been  demonstrated  beyond  that  which  is  credited  to  the  Bang 
organism.  Eggink20  records  results  of  bacteriological  examination 
of  twenty  cases  of  endometritis  as  follows:  "Bacillus  tuberculosis  12 
times,  B.  pyogenes  bovis  14  times,  streptococci  12  times,  B.  coli  6 
times,  staphylococci  5  times,  B.  proteus  3  times,  B.  subtilis  once." 
C.  M.  Carpenter12  found  organisms  of  the  streptococci  group  pre- 
dominating in  lesions  in  the  genital  tract  of  sterile  cows,  but  the 
character  of  the  lesions  is  not  noted  in  relation  to  the  organisms 
isolated.  B.  pyogenes  has  also  been  found  to  be  associated  with 
metritis  and  BeaverG  in  a  report  on  the  bacteriology  of  sterility  in 
cows,  says:  "It  seems  from  our  studies  that  streptococci  and  B. 
pyogenes  play  the  most  pathogenic  roles  in  metritis  and  other  inflam- 
matory conditions  of  the  genital  tract  of  the  cow." 

The  clinical  manifestations  of  inflammation  of  the  uterus  depend 
upon  the  type  and  extent  of  the  inflammation.  In  acute  cases  of 
septic  metritis,  which  at  times  may  occur  independent  of  abortion 
or  retained  placenta,  the  endometritis  becomes  aggravated  through 
a  new  type  of  infection  or  a  lowered  resistance  of  the  animal.  The 
exudate  is  usually  a  dirty  grey  or  reddish-brown  color.  Pus  and 
parts  of  necrotic  tissues  which  may  include  the  maternal  cotyledons 
are  discharged.  There  may  or  may  not  be  a  rise  of  temperature; 
dullness  and  prostration  are  evident.  The  extremities  of  the  animal 
are  usually  cold  and  there  is  a  disinclination  to  move  on  account  of 
the  painful   uterus.      Diarrhoea   frequently   comes   on   and   consists 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  355 

of  thin,  dark,  foul-smelling  feces.  Death  may  occur  within  five  or 
six  days  and  if  recovery  takes  place  the  animal  is  usually  sterile, 
due  to  permanent  changes  having  taken  place  in  the  generative 
organs.  In  the  milder  types  of  inflammation  which  include  endo- 
metritis there  may  exist  no  appreciable  disturbance  in  the  general 
health  of  the  animal.  A  small  amount  of  greyish-white  pus  or 
necrotic  tissue  debris  may  be  discharged  from  the  vulva  for  a  con- 
siderable period  of  time.  The  appetite  and  milk  flow  are  very  little 
disturbed. 

Aside  from  the  danger  of  death  occurring  from  metritis  and  its 
complications,  the  most  important  outcome  is  the  temporary  or  per- 
manent sterility  supervening.  The  pathological  changes  which  have 
been  noted  in  the  uterus  following  acute  or  long-standing  inflamma- 
tion are  well  described  by  Hallman27  as  follows :  "The  lesions  observed 
in  varying  degrees  in  the  different  cases  are  mucoid  degeneration  of 
the  superficial  epithelium,  local  and  diffuse  fibrosis  of  the  uterine 
mucosa,  leucocytic  infiltration  of  the  stroma  and  gland  luminea  and 
degeneration  and  disintegration  of  the  glandular  epithelium  with 
diminution  in  the  number  of  glands.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the 
anatomical  alterations  are  comparatively  few  and  it  is  hardly  con- 
ceivable that  failure  to  breed  was  the  result  of  loss  of  functional  tissue 
of  the  uterine  mucosa." 

It  has  not  yet  been  determined  to  what  extent  organic  changes 
in  the  uterus  under  inflammation  are  responsible  for  failure  to  breed. 
The  probabilities  are  that  the  functional  disturbance  of  other  neces- 
sary parts  of  the  generative  apparatus  induced  by  the  inflammation 
in  the  uterus  is  as  important  a  factor  in  sterility  as  the  specific 
changes  in  the  walls  of  the  uterus.  From  a  study  of  these  conditions 
it  seems  impossible  to  have  any  acute  or  long-standing  disturbance 
of  the  uterus  proper  without  the  adjacent  cervix,  oviducts,  and  ovaries 
becoming  involved. 

The  treatment  of  all  forms  of  metritis  must,  of  course,  vary 
according  to  the  clinical  manifestation.  The  prognosis  in  acute  septic 
metritis  is  always  grave  and  the  treatment  must  in  the  main  be 
symptomatic  with  such  specific  measures  applied  to  the  uterus  as 
will  aid  in  removing  necrotic  membranes  or  purulent  material  that 
may  aggravate  the  toxemia  through  absorption.  Comfortable  quar- 
ters, fresh  cool  water,  laxative  food,  if  the  animal  will  eat,  and  due 
attention  to  the  need  of  stimulants  are  essentials  of  the  treatment. 
The  attention  that  may  be  directed  to  the  uterus  itself  will  depend 
upon  its  condition.  If  the  cervix  is  sufficiently  open  to  allow  the 
passage  of  a  soft  rubber   catheter,   the  introduction  of  hot  saline 


356  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

solution  once  a  day  is  helpful  if  there  is  inflammatory  debris  that 
should  come  away.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  in  the  acute  septic 
form  of  metritis  it  is  dangerous  to  handle  some  uteri  to  any  great 
extent.  Their  walls  are  soft  and  friable,  easily  mutilated,  and  their 
rupture  practically  always  induces  a  fatal  peritonitis. 

In  the  more  chronic  forms,  characterized  by  a  low  form  of  in- 
flammation and  exudations,  such  as  is  seen  in  endometritis,  the  weekly 
irrigation  of  the  uterus  with  proper  instruments,  together  with  the 
treatment  of  the  cervicitis  which  may  exist,  brings  about  recovery  and 
restores  the  breeding  of  the  animal  in  the  majority  of  cases.  W.  L. 
Williams  has  long  advocated  the  use  of  iy2  to  2  per  cent  Lugol's 
iodine  as  a  douching  material  for  these  latter  cases.  In  the  light  of 
his  own  and  our  experiences  his  recommendations  are  amply  justified. 
The  solutions  to  be  introduced  into  the  uterus  may  be  carried  by  the 
Albrechtsen  tubes  or  some  modification  of  them,  or  by  soft  rubber 
catheters.  The  cleansing  of  the  uterus  of  its  exudate  is  facilitated 
by  massage  of  the  uterus  through  the  rectum.  In  many  cases  the 
uterus  may  be  emptied  through  massage  alone.  In  doing  this  the 
hand  is  introduced  into  the  vagina  and  the  cervix  grasped.  The 
other  hand  is  employed  in  the  rectum  in  massaging  the  cornua  in  the 
direction  of  the  cervix.  In  certain  cases  the  tone  of  the  cornua  is 
materially  benefited  by  massage  through  the  rectum  once  or  twice  a 
week.  Some  veterinarians  who  have  had  considerable  experience  with 
this  type  of  inflammation  and  sterility  do  not  apply  forceps  or  use 
tubes  in  many  of  the  cases,  depending  entirely  upon  manual  manipu- 
lation of  the  uterus. 

Suspensions  of  dead  organisms  (bacterins)  have  been  advocated 
as  an  adjunct  to  the  above  treatment.  No  authentic  reports  have 
been  made  that  these  are  of  any  great  service  in  this  condition. 
Theoretically  they  should  be  of  some  benefit  in  some  types  of  cases. 
We  have  not  used  them. 

It  is  useless  to  breed  a  cow  with  an  existing  metritis  of  any  type 
and  experience  demonstrates  that  not  only  will  the  animal  probably 
fail  to  conceive  or  if  conception  takes  place  the  fertilized  ovum  soon 
perishes  unobserved,  but  the  existing  metritis  or  cervicitis  is  also 
aggravated. 

PYOMETEA 

The  term  pyometra  is  used  to  define  a  metritis  in  which  the  walls 
of  the  uterus  are  relaxed  and  flaccid  and  considerable  accumulation 
of  pus  has  taken  place.  It  is  usually  a  chronic  condition  where  the 
excessive  formation  of  mucus  under  inflammation   has  given  away 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  357 

to  a  purulent  exudate  and  in  long-standing  cases  to  the  destruction 
of  the  endometrium.  This  condition  is  one  of  the  most  common  forms 
of  disturbance  of  the  uterus  that  interfere  with  successful  breeding. 
The  disease  is  recognized  by  the  purulent  discharge  from  the  vulva, 
many  times  noticeable  only  when  the  cow  is  in  a  recumbent  position. 
The  constant  discharge  of  thick,  creamy  pus  suggests  pyometra  and 
also  that  the  cervix  is  open  and  flaccid.  In  other  types  of  this  infec- 
tion diagnosis  is  possible  only  upon  rectal  examination  and  catheteriza- 
tion of  the  womb.  The  cervix  in  the  latter  types  either  has  not  lost 
its  contractile  powers,  or  it  is  so  diseased  and  swollen  that  the  exit  of 
the  pus  is  prevented.  In  these  cases  two  types  are  again  recognized. 
One  which  is  found  upon  rectal  palpation,  in  which  one  or  both  cornua 
are  felt  distended  with  the  accumulated  pus.  Usually  both  cornua 
are  equally  distended  and  the  walls  feel  soft  and  relaxed  and  without 
tone.  Cases  have  been  observed  in  which  semi-solid  masses  that  later 
proved  to  be  inspissated  pus,  could  be  felt  in  the  cornua.  In  the 
other  type  recognized  by  catheterization  only,  a  small  quantity  of  pus 
is  imprisoned  and  careful  watch  must  be  kept  of  the  irrigating 
catheter  for  the  flakes  of  pus  coming  out  diluted  with  the  irrigating 
fluid.  It  has  been  stated  that  no  case  of  pyometra  can  exist  without 
a  cervicitis,  but  that  a  cervicitis  does  exist  without  the  pyometra. 

The  important  feature  of  this  condition  is  the  frequency  with 
which  the  infection  extends  to  the  Fallopian  tubes  and  to  the  cervix, 
resulting  in  a  salpingitis  and  cervicitis. 

The  treatment  of  pyometra  in  general  is  not  different  from  that 
previously  described,  employed  for  a  chronic  endometritis.  The 
uterus  must  be  evacuated  of  its  contents  by  massage  or  by  catheteriza- 
tion, or  both,  and  infection  destroyed.  This  latter  effect  can  only 
be  accomplished  through  irrigation  and  massage,  which  act  in 
assisting  nature  in  bringing  together  its  own  defensive  elements.  In 
some  cases  of  pyometra  the  corpus  luteum  is  retained.  It  should  be 
expressed  in  all  cases  of  pyometra.  Extraction  of  the  corpus  luteum 
under  these  conditions  aids  materially  in  bringing  about  contraction 
and  tone  to  the  walls  of  the  uterus. 

In  the  long-standing  cases  of  pyometra  in  which  rectal  palpation 
discloses  thick,  fibroid  walls  of  the  cornua,  the  prognosis  is  unfavor- 
able for  recovery  of  the  breeding  functions.  The  probabilities  are 
that  the  endometrium  has  been  destroyed  and  fibroid  degeneration 
of  the  walls  with  possible  sclerosis  has  taken  place. 


358  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


CERVICITIS 

This  term  defines  an  inflammation  of  the  cervix.  This  segment 
of  the  genital  tract  is  from  three  to  five  inches  long,  and  from  two  to 
three  inches  thick,  forming  the  connecting  link  between  the  vagina 
and  the  uterus.  Its  walls  are  normally  very  thick,  dense,  and  rigid. 
The  canal  is  tortuous,  because  of  the  presence  of  circular  muscular 
fibers  causing  the  mucous  membrane  to  be  thrown  into  folds.  Under 
healthy  conditions  and  in  the  absence  of  heat,  the  canal  is  closed  and 
can  be  dilated  only  with  difficulty.  In  estrum  and  parturition  it 
freely  dilates,  and  in  certain  diseased  conditions  remains  open  and 
relaxed.  Located  in  the  mucosa  of  the  organ  are  numerous  mucous 
glands,  which,  under  the  influence  of  normal  heat  and  inflammation 
secrete  and  discharge  mucus.  When  pregnancy  is  established  a 
mucous  plug  or  seal  is  established  in  the  canal  through  the  produc- 
tion of  material  from  these  glands.  This  latter  function  is  perhaps 
one  of  the  most  important  to  be  credited  to  the  cervix.  The  seal  acts 
as  a  barrier  between  the  uterus  and  the  vagina  in  pregnancy,  thus 
preventing  to  a  great  extent  the  passage  of  organisms  from  the 
vagina. 

In  cervicitis  we  see  inflammations  in  varying  degree  of  this  part 
of  the  genital  tract.  It  may  at  times  be  so  severe  that  the  spermatozoa 
of  the  male  cannot  successfully  pass  the  abnormal  secretions  encoun- 
tered in  the  canal.  In  other  cases  the  inflammation  may  be  so  marked 
that  the  swollen  and  tumefied  cervix  successfully  prevents  the 
entrance  of  the  spermatozoa.  Recent  investigations  have  also  shown 
that  inflammation  of  the  cervix  is  intimately  related  to  diseases  of 
the  oviducts  and  ovaries.  In  fact,  there  is  great  physiological  and 
pathological  sympathy  among  the  different  parts  of  the  generative 
apparatus. 

Cervicitis  is  not  generally  recognized  until  examination  is  made 
for  the  purpose  of  diagnosing  the  cause  of  an  existing  sterility,  or  in 
the  treatment  of  some  of  the  conditions  heretofore  discussed.  It  is 
indicated  in  its  simplest  form  by  swelling  and  redness  of  the  mucosa 
of  the  posterior  extremity  extending  into  the  vagina.  Here  the 
external  mucous  fold  may  be  seen  greatly  swollen  and  the  cervical 
folds  partly  everted.  As  before  mentioned  the  canal  itself  may  be 
found  dilated  through  a  relaxation  of  its  muscular  fibers  to  the  extent 
that  the  tortuous  canal  is  entirely  obliterated  and  two  or  more  fingers 
may  be  introduced.  At  other  times  the  canal  is  entirely  closed  and 
muco-purulent  material  may  be  observed  on  the  surface  of  the  folds 
or  seen  oozing  from  out  the  depths  of  the  canal. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  359 

W.  L.  Williams90  states  that  the  greatest  danger  from  cervicitis 
generally  arises  after  fertilization,  when  the  infection  tends  to  inhibit 
the-  prompt  physiological  sealing  of  the  canal  and  is  free  to  attack 
the  fertilized  ovnm  immediately  on  its  arrival  in  the  uterine  cavity, 
and  that  cervicitis  is  the  fundamental  lesion  in  abortion  and  retained 
fetal  membranes. 

The  treatment  of  cervicitis  should  be  directed  toward  the  dis- 
infecting of  the  cervix.  For  this  purpose  Lugol's  solution  or  tincture 
of  iodine  is  successfully  employed.  In  applying  iodine  to  the  cervix, 
a  vaginal  speculum  may  be  introduced  or  the  cervix  may  be  grasped 
with  uterine  forceps  and  drawn  back  to  the  external  vaginal  opening. 
In  most  cows  the  external  parts  of  the  cervix  can  be  brought  into 
view  by  the  use  of  one  or  two  forceps.  Inasmuch  as  the  vaginal 
mucosa  is  more  sensitive  to  disinfectants  and  iodine  than  the  cervix, 
care  should  be  taken  that  none  of  the  full-strength  iodine  comes  in 
contact  with  the  vagina.  This  can  be  prevented  by  protecting  the 
vaginal  part  around  the  cervix  with  absorbent  cotton.  After  drying 
the  cervix  with  cotton  or  dilute  alcohol  a  pledget  of  cotton  supported 
by  forceps  is  saturated  with  full-strength  iodine  and  applied  liberally 
over  the  os  and  including  the  entire  cervical  canal.  This  treatment 
should  not  be  repeated  under  ten  days  because  considerable  irritation 
of  the  cervix  is  caused  by  the  application  of  iodine  and  there  is  some 
desquamation  of  cells.  This  is  necessary,  however,  for  any  real  dis- 
infection of  the  cervix  to  take  place  and  is  followed  by  a  prompt 
attempt  at  healing.  Good  results  may  also  be  obtained  in  the  milder 
forms  of  cervicitis  where  the  inflammation  is  confined  principally 
to  the  external  os  uteri,  by  douching  at  least  twice  weekly  with  hot 
saline  solution.  Mild  disinfectants  may  be  employed  in  place  of  the 
saline. 

SALPINGITIS 

Salpingitis  is  a  disease  of  the  Fallopian  tubes  or  oviducts.  The 
oviduct  is  a  small  tortuous  tube  extending  from  the  apex  of  each 
cornua  to  the  corresponding  ovary.  At  the  ovarian  end  of  the  tube 
there  is  a  fimbriated  expansion  in  close  contact  with  the  ovary  into 
which  the  ova  are  discharged  from  the  surface  of  the  ovary  at  ovula- 
tion and  conveyed  to  the  uterus.  The  mucous  surface  of  the  oviduct 
is  lined  with  ciliated  columnar  epithelium.  The  cilia  aid  in  trans- 
porting the  ovum,  fertilized  or  unfertilized,  through  the  tube  into  the 
cornua.  The  spermatozoa  of  the  male  pass  up  the  tube  in  search  of 
the  ovum.  Fertilization  may  take  place  between  these  two  cells  in 
the  fimbriated  expansion  or  somewhere  in  the  oviduct,  but  implanta- 


360  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

tion  of  the  fertilized  ovum  under  normal  conditions  should  take  place 
only  in  the  uterus. 

Salpingitis  has  long  been  considered  an  important  factor  in  the 
sterility  of  women  and  in  late  j^ears  veterinary  investigations  have 
brought  to  light  the  fact  that  disturbances  of  the  oviduct  in  cattle 
are  very  common  and  are  responsible  for  a  considerable  portion  of 
sterility  encountered  in  cattle.  It  has  been  observed  in  cattle  of  all 
ages,  including  those  that  have  never  given  birth  to  a  calf,  and  in 
certain  herds  this  particular  type  of  infection  seems  to  be  endemic. 
Concerning  this  latter  observation,  Carpenter,  Williams,  and  Gilman11 
published  the  following  table  which  gives  in  brief  the  relation  of 
salpingitis  to  the  breeding  of  a  herd  which  they  had  under  observa- 
tion: 

Total   cows  in  herd 87 

Clinical  salpingitis  23,  or  26.4% 

Out  of  23  cases  of  salpingitis : 

Sterile 14 

Aborted  prematurely  or  retained  placenta 6 

Reproduced  normally  3 

The  disease  appears  to  be  essentially  of  infectious  origin  and  to 
be  an  extension  of  infection  from  some  other  part  of  the  genital  tract. 
Researches  indicate  that  infection  of  the  tube  is  very  likely  to  develop 
following  a  retained  afterbirth,  metritis,  and  particularly  a  cervicitis. 
The  organisms  most  frequently  encountered  are  Streptococcus  viri- 
dans  and  staphylococci.  These  types  of  organisms  have  also  been 
isolated  from  adjacent  diseased  parts  of  the  genital  tract.  The  sig- 
nificance of  the  presence  of  these  organisms  as  a  specific  cause  of 
salpingitis  has  not  as  yet  been  fully  determined. 

Most  cases  of  salpingitis  are  diagnosed  upon  autopsy,  or  indirectly 
when  no  other  cause  for  sterility  in  a  given  case  can  be  determined. 
The  autopsies  upon  sterile  cows  in  which  disease  of  the  tubes  has 
been  found  have  demonstrated  two  things ;  one  that  salpingitis  in  its 
different  forms  is  responsible  for  a  far  greater  number  of  the  cases 
of  sterility  than  heretofore  recognized,  and  second,  that  sufficient 
pathological  changes  may  be  present  in  the  oviduct  to  prevent  con- 
ception and  yet  not  be  clinically  evident.  Some  clinicians  have  main- 
tained that  a  diseased  condition  is  indicated  whenever  the  oviduct  is 
easily  palpable  by  rectal  examination.  This  is  not  entirely  true, 
however,  because  the  normal  sized  oviduct  is  palpable,  though  con- 
siderable skill  and  practice  are  necessary  to  feel  it.     Therefore  this 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  361 

is  not  a  safe  criterion  to  follow  in  diagnosing  disorders  of  the  tube 
because  alterations  sufficient  to  prevent  conception  may  be  present 
in  the  normal  sized  tube. 

The  gross  and  microscopic  changes  found  in  salpingitis  of  cattle 
are  best  described  by  Carpenter,  Williams  and  Gilman11  in  the  paper 
referred  to  above  as  follows : 

On  section  a  thick,  yellowish,  viscid  exudate,  appearing  like  pus,  usually  oozes 
from  the  cut  end  of  the  tube,  but  on  microscopical  examination  only  epithelial 
cells,  a  mucoid  material,  and  occasional  bacteria  are  seen.  Histologically,  the 
conditions  observed  in  the  tube  are  usually  some  form  of  a  catarrhal  inflamma- 
tion ranging  from  an  acute  exudative  endosalpingitis  to  a  chronic  catarrhal  inflam- 
mation of  all  layers  with  obstruction  of  the  lumen  by  granulation  tissue  in  the  more 
chronic  cases.  In  acute  exudative  endosalpingitis  there  is  merely  a  fibrinous  or 
serous  exudate  into  the  lumen,  with  h}rperemia  of  the  mucosa  and  loss  of  cilia 
in  many  instances.  The  chronic  form  is  characterized  by  frequent  loss  of  the 
lining  epithelium,  a  profuse  exudate  in  the  lumen,  thickening  of  the  folds  by  a 
productive  inflammation,  and  the  resulting  narrowing,  more  or  less,  of  the  lumen. 
In  the  acute  catarrhal  form  affecting  all  layers,  the  muscularis  and  serosa  show 
hyperemia  and  more  or  less  exudation  between  the  muscular  fibers  apart,  is  seen 
occasionally,  and  even  when  present  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  a  prolonged  effort 
to  expel  the  constantly  produced  exudate.  The  chronic  form  differs  from  the 
acute  condition  by  the  fact  that  all  coats  are,  as  a  rule,  affected.  Partial  or  total 
atresia  of  the  lumen  is  often  brought  about,  and  frequently  the  intermuscular  con- 
nective tissue  is  increased,  causing  more  or  less  atrophy  of  the  muscular  fibers. 
A  cellular  exudate  into  all  coats  is  usually  seen,  particularly  in  the  mucosa.  As 
has  been  mentioned  before,  in  hydrosalpinx  there  is  occlusion  of  the  lumen  at 
one  or  more  points,  causing  an  accumulation  of  the  serous  fluid.  The  mucosa 
in  these  cases  is  not  materially  altered.  The  epithelium  is  usually  intact,  the 
wall  being  much  thinner  and  more  or  less  translucent,  due  to  almost  complete 
atrophy  of  the  muscular  and  serous  coals. 

The  diagnosis  of  the  pathological  conditions  above  described  is 
naturally  very  difficult  to  make.  In  those  cases  where  there  have 
developed  adhesions  of  the  pavilion  of  the  oviduct  to  the  ovary  or 
other  gross  lesions  of  the  duct  or  in  the  peritoneal  fold  that  supports 
it.  the  condition  may  be  recognized  upon  rectal  examination. 

The  specific  treatment  of  any  form  of  salpingitis  is  not  as  yet 
well  understood  and  little  hope  of  successful  results  can  be  offered. 
The  best  treatment  is  prevention  and  the  preventive  measures  are 
best  carried  out  by  early  and  careful  treatment  of  the  other  parts  of 
generative  system  that  may  be  diseased.  Prompt  attention  to  retained 
afterbirth,  metritis,  etc.,  constitutes  the  best  prophylactic  treatment 
of  salpingitis. 


362  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


CYSTIC  DEGENERATION  OF  THE  OVARIES 
The  cow  seems  to  be  more  subject  to  ovarian  trouble  than  other 
animals.  Cystic  degeneration  is  the  most  commonly  observed  ovarian 
trouble  in  this  animal.  In  one  or  both  ovaries  a  diseased  condition 
frequently  develops,  originating  either  within  the  Graafian  follicle 
or  corpus  luteum,  which  is  characterized  by  degenerative  changes 
and  an  excessive  accumulation  of  serous  fluid.  These  cysts  often 
grow  to  enormous  size,  causing  the  ovary  to  be  four  or  five  times  its 
normal  size,  and  destroy  a  large  part  of  the  ovarian  tissue  (Figs.  5 
and  6).  The  degeneration  of  the  ovaries  interferes  with  ovulation 
and  usually  results  in  a  cow  becoming  a  nymphomaniac  (chronic 
buller). 

The  cause  of  cystic  ovaries  is  as  yet  not  well  understood,  although 
considerable  work  has  been  carried  out  in  an  effort  to  find  the 
etiological  factors.  Observations  and  studies  have  indicated  that  the 
development  of  cystic  ovaries  depends  upon  a  disturbance  of  the 
generative  system,  either  through  infection  or  functional  disorders 
related  to  nutritional  deficiencies.  An  extension  of  the  inflammation 
and  infection  which  is  so  frequently  found  in  the  Fallopian  tubes 
may  be  one  potent  cause  for  this  and  other  diseases  of  the  ovary.  It 
is  very  common  in  such  cases  to  find  trouble  in  the  other  parts  of  the 
organs,  particularly  in  the  cervix.  We  have  observed  that  in  the 
majority  of  cases  of  long-standing  cervicitis  requiring  treatment, 
there  is  a  strong  possibility  of  cystic  ovaries  following.  We,  as  well 
as  others,  have,  succeeded  in  relieving  this  disease  of  the  ovaries  by 
rupture  of  the  cysts  and  correction  of  the  cervicitis. 

As  a  rule,  every  cow  affected  with  cystic  ovaries  is  a  non-breeder 
and  remains  so  as  long  as  the  degenerative  changes  exist  in  the  ovaries. 
The  estrous  cycle  is  interfered  with  and  usually  the  cows  are  recog- 
nized as  chronic  bullers.  The  symptoms  are  very  characteristic. 
After  the  disease  has  existed  for  some  time  marked  changes  occur  in 
the  form  of  the  animal  (figs.  7  and  8).  The  sacro-sciatic  ligaments 
undergo  relaxation  which  in  turn  modifies  the  form  of  the  muscles 
of  the  rump.  The  external  gluteal  muscles  visibly  sink.  The  ischium 
and  sacrum  seem  to  be  elevated  and  the  anterior  end  of  the  ileum 
depressed  so  that  the  "tail  head"  appears  unusually  high.  There  are 
depressions  on  each  side  of  the  base  of  the  tail  and  the  vulva  appears 
enlarged  and  flabby.  Also  the  animal  may  take  on  some  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  bull,  indicated  by  an  enlargement  of  the  muscles 
of  the  crest  of  the  neck.  Heat  seems  to  be  present  most  of  the  time 
and  the  animals  will  show  it  by  the  usual  symptoms  in  an  exaggerated 


Bulletin  353] 


BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION 


363 


Fig.   5. — Enlarged   cystic  ovary  on  left  with  normal   ovary  on  right.      (% 
natural  size.) 


Fig.  6. — Cross-section  of  the  cystic  ovary  (left)  shown  in  fig.  5.     Note  the 
cavities  which  contained  the  cystic  fluid  before  sectioning. 


;*64 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


form.  Rectal  palpation  confirms  a  diagnosis  of  cystic  ovaries,  sus- 
pected from  the  observation  of  the  above  symptoms.  Upon  grasping 
the  ovaries  through  the  rectum  one  or  both  of  them  may  be  found 
to  be  greatly  enlarged,  irregular  in  contour,  and  one  or  more  cysts 
of  different  sizes  may  protrude  from  the  surface.  This  disease  is 
particularly  important  because  of  the  sterility  which  it  produces,  the 


Fig.  7. — Cow  with  long-standing  cystic  ovaries.  Note  the  abnormal  form  of 
the  rump  and  tail  head. 

reduced  milk  flow  occurring,  and  the  fact  that  high  producing  cows 
seem  to  be  more  commonly  affected.  In  this  connection  it  may  be 
stated  that  there  is  growing  evidence  that  cystic  ovaries  may  be 
related  to  a  mineral  food  deficiency  brought  about  through  the  loss 
of  mineral  matter  in  the  production  of  large  quantities  of  milk. 

The  treatment  of  cystic  ovaries  consists  of  rupture  of  the  cysts 
through  the  rectum  or  the  vagina  and  the  simultaneous  treatment  of 
any  other  disordered  parts  of  the  generative  organs.  Albrechtsen2 
states  that  nymphomania  and  cystic  ovaries  have  responded  to  treat- 
ment of  the  metritis  and  pyometra  which  he  says  always  coexist.  Out 
of  107  cows,   86  per  cent  were  completely  cured  by  him  when  the 


Bulletin  353] 


BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION 


365 


uterus  was  cleared  of  its  metritis.  Our  own  work  confirms  the  idea 
that  the  cervicitis,  metritis,  etc.,  must  be  relieved  before  we  may 
expect  any  favorable  changes  in  the  ovaries  when  these  are  coexistent 
with  them. 

In  rupturing  cysts  of  the  ovaries  the  hand  is  introduced  into  the 
rectum  and  the  ovary  grasped  through  the  wall  of  the  rectum, 
pressure  being  applied  upon  the  protruding  cysts.  Usually  the  mem- 
brane covering  the  cyst  is  so  thin  that  rupture  soon  occurs.  Some- 
times, however,  it  is  unyielding  and  the  operation  of  rupturing  must 


Fig.  8. — Cow  with  cystic  ovaries  of  two  years'  standing.    Note  conformation 
of  rump  region. 


be  carried  out  through  the  walls  of  the  vagina  with  the  other  hand. 
This  vaginal  wall  is  not  so  easily  lacerated  with  the  fingers  as  the 
wall  of  the  rectum. 

Cows  with  cystic  ovaries  that  show  symptoms  of  nymphomania 
should  be  kept  by  themselves  and  not  allowed  to  copulate  with  the 
bull  until  there  is  some  evidence  that  the  animal  has  recovered  and 
is  capable  of  conceiving.  When  a  chronic  buller  is  harbored  with  the 
rest  of  the  herd  in  pasture  or  corral  she  disturbs  the  other  cows  by 
continually  mounting  them  or  allowing  the  other  cows  to  mount 
her.  Besides  the  appreciable  effect  this  would  have  upon  the  milk 
flow  of  the  other  cows  there  is  danger  of  fractures  and  other  injuries 
occurring. 


366  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


DISCUSSION 

In  the  preceding  pages  only  a  few  of  the  more  common  diseases 
of  the  genital  organs  of  the  cow  have  been  considered.  The  space  of 
this  bulletin  will  not  permit  a  fuller  discussion  of  these  and  many 
other  diseases  that  interfere  with  reproduction.  In  addition  to  the 
diseases  herein  mentioned — and  the  diseases  of  the  bull  have  not  been 
considered — there  are  many  others  which  may  be  classified  under 
such  headings  as  alterations  in  development  and  growth  of  the  organs ; 
congenital  defects ;  specific  diseases,  such  as  granular  vaginitis,  tuber- 
culosis, and  actinomycosis;  tumors;  and  functional  disturbances 
brought  on  by  overwork,  improper  feeding,  starvation,  mineral 
deficiencies,  and  excessive  sexual  use. 

The  attention  of  the  breeder  is  called  to  the  fact  that  the  diseases 
of  generative  organs  of  breeding  animals  are  numerous,  widespread, 
and  call  for  the  most  expert  attention  in  order  to  preserve  and  main- 
tain the  breeding  efficiency  of  the  herds.  And  further  that  there  is 
no  one  cause  why  a  cow  will  not  breed,  nor  any  one  treatment  that 
will  meet  all  cases  of  sterility. 

The  most  frequent,  and  also  the  most  difficult  question,  which 
the  Division  of  Veterinary  Science  is  called  upon  to  answer  in  cor- 
respondence with  breeders  is  the  one  concerning  the  cause  for  and 
treatment  of  certain  non-breeding  cows  in  their  herds.  A  study  by  the 
stockman  of  some  of  these  pages  will  demonstrate  how  futile  it  is 
to  attempt  to  make  a  diagnosis  and  recommend  treatment  without 
having  an  opportunity  to  examine  the  cows  in  question,  or  the  con- 
ditions under  which  the  animals  are  maintained.  The  breeder  can 
reduce  the  diseases  of  the  generative  organs  and  the  resulting  sterility 
to  a  minimum  by  the  practice  of  good  animal  husbandry  and  by  the 
application  of  the  principles  of  sexual  hygiene  and  sanitation  to  the 
breeding  herd. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  367 


V 

THE  DIAGNOSIS  OF  PREGNANCY  IN  CATTLE 

By  GEOEGE  H.  HAET 


THE  ESTEOUS  CYCLE 

The  term  estrous  cycle  is  used  to  indicate  the  various  phases  of 
activity  through  which  the  genital  organs  of  the  female  mammalia 
pass.  These  changes  recur  in  more  or  less  periodical  manner  during 
the  life  of  the  animal,  from  the  time  she  becomes  sexually  mature 
until  she  passes  the  age  of  reproductive  activity.  In  some  species 
there  is  what  is  known  as  a  breeding  season  during  which  the  female 
shows  sexual  excitement,  and  she  remains  quiescent  through  the 
remainder  of  the  year.  At  this  time  there  may  be  only  one  estrous 
cycle  or  several  cycles  may  follow  each  other  regularly  unless  preg- 
nancy intervenes.  Animals  having  only  one  estrous  cycle  during  the 
breeding  season  are  termed  monestrous,  while  those  having  more 
than  one  are  known  as  polyestrous.  In  a  few  species,  the  male  also 
has  a  definite  breeding  period,  as  in  the  deer,  and  the  term  "rutting 
season"  is  applied  to  it.  In  the  bovine,  as  in  the  majority  of  species, 
the  male  has  no  definite  breeding  season  and  will  breed  at  any  time 
of  the  year.  In  some  species  a  single  heat  period  of  the  female  is 
followed  by  a  long  period  of  rest.  The  dog  furnishes  an  example  of 
this  type  of  monestrous  sexual  activity.  In  the  cow,  which  is  a  poly- 
estrous animal  there  is  no  definite  breeding  season,  and  estrous  cycles 
follow  one  another  regularly  throughout  the  year,  unless  pregnancy 
intervenes,  requiring  about  twenty-one  days  for  their  completion. 

In  each  cycle  there  are  definite  stages  to  the  changes  which  take 
place.  Marshall40,  who  has  published  an  extensive  treatise  on  the 
physiology  of  reproduction,  has  divided  the  period  into  four  phases  to 
which  he  has  applied  the  terms  used  by  Heape,  of  proestrum,  estrum, 
metestrum,  and  diestrum. 

The  proestrual  period  is  usually  of  very  short  duration  in  cattle, 
and  in  these  animals  it  is  not  definitely  separated  from  the  estrual. 
Where  unbred  females,  however,  particularly  heifers,  have  access  to  a 
bull,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  note  an  animal  to  apparently  be  attracted 
by  the  bull  and  remain  in  close  association  with  him  for  a  period  of 
from  several  hours  to  one  day  before  she  comes  into  heat  to  the  point 


368  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

that  she  will  allow  service.  In  other  animals,  notably  dogs,  the  pro- 
estrual  period  covers  five  to  nine  days. 

Estrum,  or  the  true  heat  period  in  cattle,  is  short  in  duration, 
covering  a  period  of  eighteen  to  twenty-four  hours.  At  this  time 
the  animal  manifests  evidence  of  sexual  desire  and,  in  the  absence 
of  the  male,  will  mount  other  cows  in  the  pasture  or  corral.  If  con- 
fined by  herself,  she  becomes  restless  and  frequently  bawls.  There 
is  a  congestion  of  the  vulva  and  at  times  a  discharge  of  clear  mucus 
from  the  vagina. 

The  metestrum  is  the  period  after  the  animal  has  passed  out  of 
heat  and  until  the  genital  organs  resume  their  normal  state.  This 
period  offers  no  definite  exterior  manifestations,  is  of  short  duration 
in  the  cow,  and  is  followed  by  the  resting  period,  or  diestrum,  which 
covers  much  the  greater  portion  of  the  estrual  cycle,  being  eighteen 
to  twenty-one  days  in  length. 


CHANGES  TAKING  PLACE  IN  THE  GENITAL  TRACT  DUEING  THE 
ESTEOUS  CYCLE  PHASES 

Estrous  cycle  manifestations  are  brought  on  by  the  physiological 
activity  of  the  genital  organs,  particularly  the  ovaries.  The  ovary  is 
divided  into  two  main  parts,  one  termed  the  cortex  or  outer  third, 
and  the  other  the  medulla  or  central  portion. 

In  the  outer  third  are  situated  the  immature  Graafian  follicles  in 
great  numbers.  Each  Graafian  follicle  contains  one  ovum  or  female 
generative  cell. 

As  each  heat  period  approaches,  one  of  these  Graafian  follicles 
enlarges  and  becomes  mature.  It  then  ruptures  through  the  cortex 
of  the  ovary  and  its  contained  ova  cell  is  discharged  into  the  Fallopian 
tube.  In  the  cow  usually  only  one  Graafian  follicle  ruptures  at  each 
estrum.  In  case  two  rupture  and  the  animal  is  bred,  twins  will  usually 
result  from  the  service.  In  hogs,  dogs,  and  other  animals  having  a 
litter  of  offspring,  a  number  of  Graafian  follicles  become  mature  and 
rupture  at  each  estrous  period.  After  the  follicle  ruptures,  the  space 
it  occupied  in  the  ovary  is  filled  with  some  red-blood  cells,  a  connective 
tissue  framework  containing  blood  vessels,  and  large  yellow-pigmented 
lutein  cells.  The  term  yellow  body  or  corpus  luteum  has  been  applied 
to  this  structure.  It  is  very  large  and  may  be  readily  seen  on  examin- 
ing ovaries,  e.g.,  at  a  packing  house,  as  a  bulging,  yellow  protuber- 
ance on  the  ovary. 


Bulletin  353] 


BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION 


369 


The  discharged  ovum  passes  down  the  oviduct  or  Fallopian  tube, 
which  is  a  very  small  tube,  about  the  size  of  a  piece  of  baling  wire, 
connecting  the  ovary  with  the  horn  of  the  uterus.  At  the  time  the 
follicle  is  maturing,  the  uterus  is  undergoing  changes  and  its  mucous 
membrane  becomes  congested  preparatory  to  receiving  the  ovum  and 
nourishing  it  in  case  breeding  occurs  and  conception  follows.  If 
breeding  does  not  occur,  the  ovum  is  discharged  or  becomes  absorbed, 


Germinal  JL,  wYtkettum. 

Trimavy  TollicU 


';  \  Ft;§Pi-  Follicle 


Fig.  9. — Microscopic  section  of  ovary  of  cow  showing  a  Graafian 
follicle  with  ovum.  (After  W.  L.  Williams.) 

the  congestion  of  the  uterus  recedes,  and  the  animal  passes  into  the 
diestrous  period.  Toward  the  end  of  the  diestrous  period,  the 
yellow  body  undergoes  absorption  or  possibly  in  some  cases  is  expelled 
from  the  surface  of  the  ovary  coincident  with  the  development  of 
another  Graafian  follicle,  and  a  new  cycle  is  started.  In  case  con- 
ception occurs  at  any  heat  period,  the  corpus  luteum  is  not  absorbed 
but  remains  permanently  through  the  period  of  gestation.  It  is 
then  known  as  the  corpus  luteum  of  pregnancy  and  no  more  heat 
periods  appear  under  normal  conditions  until  after  the  birth  of  the 
offspring.    In  the  absence  of  conception,  heat  periods  normally  recur 


370  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

with  uniform  regularity  throughout  the  year  at  intervals  of  about 
twenty-one  days,  being,  according  to  some  investigators,  slightly 
shorter  during  warm  summer  weather  than  in  winter. 


IRREGULARITIES  IN  THE  ESTROUS  CYCLE 

While  under  ordinary  conditions  the  presence  of  the  estrous  mani- 
festations are  a  guide  to  the  breeding  status  of  the  individual  animal, 
too  much  dependence  cannot  be  placed  on  this  fact  alone.  The  ideal 
breeding  efficiency  of  cattle  is  obtained  when  each  female  gives  birth 
to  offspring  every  twelve  months.  Very  few  herds  reach  this  stand- 
ard and  loss  in  efficiency  of  production  in  all  herds,  whether  beef  or 
dairy,  increases  as  the  breeding  efficiency  declines.  This  is  one  of 
the  principal  factors  in  the  financial  loss  sustained  from  diseases  of 
the  genital  tract. 

Certain  conditions  cause  complete  and  more  or  less  permanent 
arrest  of  the  estrual  cycle  in  the  absence  of  pregnancy.  At  times, 
although  with  much  less  frequency,  estrum  is  manifested  and  service 
from  the  bull  accepted  one  or  more  times  during  the  period  of  an 
apparently  normal  gestation,  followed  by  the  birth  of  a  healthy  calf. 

The  condition  of  nutrition  of  an  animal  has  an  important  bearing 
on  the  development  of  estrum.  It  is  regularly  observed,  for  example, 
in  range  cattle,  during  unfavorable  years  when  feed  is  poor  and 
weather  conditions  bad,  causing  mature,  non-pregnant  cows  to  get 
very  thin,  that  no  estrum  is  noticed  until  -conditions  are  such  that 
the  animal  begins  to  physically  improve,  even  though  months  are 
required  for  this  change  to  occur. 

In  experimental,  small  animals,  notably  the  white  rat,  Evans19 
has  shown  that  by  restricting  the  diet  of  the  animals  in  certain  ways 
the  estrous  cycle  may  be  completely  arrested  or  the  animal  may  be 
kept  more  or  less  permanently  in  heat  over  a  period  of  months.  The 
normal  estrous  cycle  in  these  animals  covers  a  period  of  only  ninety- 
six  hours. 

Hart,  McCollum,  Steenbock  and  Humphrey29' 30,  in  Wisconsin, 
have  been  able  to  produce  marked  abnormalities  in  the  breeding 
efficiency  of  cattle  by  restricted  diets. 

In  sheep  the  lamb  crop  may  be  increased  by  the  so-called  "flush- 
ing" of  the  ewes  at  the  breeding  season. 

In  fact,  we  probably  do  not  yet  realize  the  full  significance  of 
diet  on  breeding  efficiency,  especially  in  dairy  cows  with  high  milk 
production  records.  Forbes21  and  his  assistants  have  definitely  shown 
that  the  amount  of  inorganic  salts,  notably  calcium  and  phosphorus, 


Bulletin  353] 


BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION 


371 


Fig.  10. — Three  pairs  of  ovaries  from  cows,  each  pair  showing  an 
ovary  containing  a  corpus  luteum. 


IF                      ^3^1 

f  X"*       1 

'Jr 

1  >i  Jm 

a  m                            Mm    ■             ~  ~*&$ 

-  '^EL       'ajBaW|^«BP  nBIBfe                  JwlraBm 

3k 

Fig.  11. — Same  as  figure  10,  with  the  ovaries  containing  the 
corpora  lutei  cut  in  cross  section. 


372  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

given  off  by  such  animals  in  their  milk  in  twenty-four  hours  and 
utilized  by  the  body  is  more  than  they  are  taking  in  with  their  feed 
and  they  are  therefore  said  to  be  in  negative  balance  in  regard  to 
these  elements.  Studies  by  Meigs  and  Woodward45  have  shown  the 
effect  of  shortage  of  these  elements  on  the  milk  yield  and  how  the 
latter  may  be  increased  by  a  long  dry  period  and  feeding  of  a  diet 
rich  in  these  substances.  It  is  recognized  that  the  phenomena  of 
milk  secretion  are  closely  related  to  the  activities  of  the  genital  organs. 
Just  what  effect  such  prolonged  conditions  of  inperfect  nutrition 
have  upon  the  reproductive  processes  has  yet  to  be  fully  ascertained 
by  research  and  correlation  of  truths  already  elucidated. 

One  other  condition  which  is  definitely  associated  with  the  absence 
of  heat  periods  is  retention  of  the  yellow  body  in  the  ovary.  The 
cause  of  this  condition  is  not  recognized  today  and  it  may  be  inti- 
mately associated  with  imperfect  nutrition.  Normally,  the  temporary 
corpus  luteum  of  estrum  should  become  absorbed  toward  the  end 
of  the  diestrum.  If  this  fails  to  take  place,  development  and  matura- 
tion of  another  Graafian  follicle  does  not  occur,  and  no  estrum 
appears.  This  condition  occurs  without  any  observable  manifesta- 
tions. The  animal,  following  parturition,  may  come  in  heat  regularly 
and  be  bred  after  two  or  three  months.  No  further  heat  periods  will 
be  observed  by  the  owner  and  he  will  judge  the  animal  to  be  safely 
with  calf,  only  to  find  after  many  months  that  the  cow  is  low  in  milk 
production  with  no  signs  of  advanced  pregnancy.  In  other  cases, 
after  showing  no  signs  of  heat  for  a  period  of  months,  cows  which 
are  thought  to  be  three  to  five  months  in  calf,  will  again  come  in  heat. 

In  extensive  experimental  work  on  the  white  rat,  Long  and  Evans39 
found  that  providing  this  animal  is  bred  at  the  estrous  period  and 
does  not  conceive,  the  next  appearance  of  estrum  will  be  delayed 
beyond  the  regular  period  for  the  cycle  to  recur.  They  showed  that 
in  this  animal  the  act  of  copulation  has  an  inhibitory  effect  on  the 
development  of  the  succeeding  estrual  cycle,  and  were  able  to  produce 
the  same  effect  by  inserting  a  glass  rod  into  the  vagina  at  the  estrual 
period,  so  that  it  touched  the  cervix.  They  were  unable  to  produce 
this  effect  in  guinea  pigs,  which  animals  have  a  longer  estrual  cycle 
than  white  rats.  This  may  be  an  explanation  for  the  observation 
made  on  a  considerable  percentage  of  cows  in  some  herds  that,  fol- 
lowing breeding  at  estrum  without  conception  occurring,  a  period 
varying  from  thirty  to  fifty  days  will  elapse  before  the  animal  again 
comes  in  heat. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  373 

No  definite  reason  is  at  hand  at  present  to  explain  the  cause  of 
so-called  retained  corpus  luteum  and  it  is  not  known  whether  this 
is  the  direct  cause  of  retardation  of  the  estrual  cycle  or  whether  some 
entirely  different  condition  is  the  cause  of  which  this  is  the  only 
observable  manifestation.  However,  when  on  examination  per  rectum 
of  a  cow  supposed  to  be  pregnant  for  several  months  the  uterus  is 
found  to  be  empty,  a  corpus  luteum  of  the  last  estrum  will  be  found 
in  one  or  the  other  ovary  and  can  be  readily  felt  when  the  ovary  is 
palpated  through  the  rectal  walls.  If  the  corpus  luteum  is  expressed 
from  the  ovary,  a  new  Graafian  follicle  will  at  once  begin  to  mature 
in  a  very  high  percentage  of  cases  and  the  animal  will  come  into  an 
apparently  normal  heat  period  in  from  one  to  six  days,  accept  service 
and,  in  a  good  percentage  of  cases,  become  pregnant.  When  the 
corpus  luteum  can  be  easily  expressed  this  may  be  done  through  the 
rectal  walls.  In  some  cases  it  is  deeply  embedded  in  the  ovary  and 
great  pressure  is  required  to  remove  it.  In  this  case  the  other  hand 
of  the  operator  is  placed  in  the  vagina,  the  ovary  is  passed  into  it 
by  the  hand  in  the  rectum  and  marked  pressure  made  through  the 
very  strong  vaginal  walls  without  danger  of  injury  to  the  animal. 
In  a  small  percentage  of  cases  a  second,  or  even  a  third,  attempt  must 
be  made  to  express  a  very  adherent  corpus.  When  it  is  removed, 
it  drops  free  in  the  abdominal  cavity  of  the  animal  and  is  absorbed. 

It  is  these  peculiarities  of  the  estrual  cycle  under  abnormal  con- 
ditions which  render  a  positive  diagnosis  of  pregnancy  in  its  early 
stages  of  such  great  economic  value. 


CHANGES  IN  THE  GENITAL  OEGANS  OCCUEEING  IN  PEEGNANCY 
When  conception  occurs  following  breeding  at  any  estrual  period, 
marked  changes  begin  to  occur  in  the  genital  organs,  particularly 
in  the  uterus.  The  corpus  luteum  in  the  ovary  discharging  the  ovum 
which  became  impregnated  with  the  male  cell  remains  through  the 
period  of  gestation  and  no  further  observable  activity  takes  place  in 
these  structures.  On  account  of  the  fact  that  the  uterus  is  furnishing 
a  place  for  development  as  well  as  for  nutrition  of  the  growing  off- 
spring, the  greatest  changes  are  noted  here. 

At  the  time  of  copulation  the  semen  containing  the  spermatozoa 
from  the  male  is  deposited  in  the  vagina.  The  active  motility  of  the 
spermatozoa,  thousands  of  which  are  contained  in  the  semen  from  a 
single  service,  causes  them  to  pass  up  the  cervical  canal  and  through 
the  uterus  to  the  oviduct.  Only  one  cell  is  necessary  to  impregnate 
a  single  ovum,  and  when  one  such  male  cell  enters  the  ovum  cell 


374  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

conception  lias  taken  place  and  pregnancy  becomes  established.  This 
is  followed  by  a  closing  or  sealing  of  the  cervical  canal,  by  means 
of  the  secretion  by  the  lining  cells  of  a  firm  translucent  plug  of 
tenacious  mucus  known  as  the  uterine  seal.  This  hermetically  seals 
the  interior  of  the  uterus  from  the  vagina. 

The  changes  in  the  uterus  consist  in  the  multiplication  and  growth 
of  the  single  celled  ovum  impregnated  with  a  single  male  cell,  from 
which  the  elaborate  cellular  structure  and  cell  differentiation  takes 
place  to  form  the  body  of  the  offspring.  During  this  development 
the  fetus  is  covered  by  membranes  known  commonly  as  the  placenta 
or  afterbirth.  Certain  differentiated  areas  of  the  external  membrane 
form  the  fetal  cotyledons  which  attach  to  the  maternal  cotyledons 
on  the  inside  of  the  wall  of  the  uterus  and  in  these  cotyledons  the 
interchange  of  waste  products  from  the  fetus  and  nutriment  for  its 
development  takes  place  through  the  blood  of  the  parent.  The  cir- 
culating blood  of  the  mother  and  fetus  do  not  mix  in  the  cotyledons, 
but  they  are  brought  in  such  intimate  contact  with  each  other  that 
interchange  of  waste  products  and  nutriment  takes  place  very  much 
the  same  as  occurs  in  the  lungs  of  adult  animals  during  the  process 
of  respiration.  In  the  mare,  there  are  no  cotyledons  as  the  placenta 
is  diffuse. 

During  the  fetal  development  the  uterus  must  undergo  gradual 
enlargement  and  its  blood  supply  gradually  increases.  The  bovine 
fetus  lies  in  one  or  the  other  horn  of  the  uterus,  and  this  horn  will 
gradually  exceed  in  size  the  non-pregnant  horn.  In  the  case  of  twins, 
one  may  be  located  in  each  horn. 

The  uterus  is  supplied  by  three  arteries,  the  utero-ovarian,  the 
middle  uterine,  and  the  posterior  uterine  or  vaginal.  The  middle 
uterine  is  the  largest  of  these  and  is  readily  felt  through  the  rectum 
in  the  folds  of  the  broad  ligament  in  non-pregnant  animals  and  at 
all  stages  of  pregnancy.  The  utero-ovarian  artery  lies  anterior  to 
this  one  and  sends  branches  to  the  anterior  part  of  the  horn  and  the 
ovary.  As  the  uterus  enlarges  during  pregnancy  this  artery  passes 
too  far  forward  to  be  readily  felt.  The  posterior  uterine  or  vaginal 
artery  can  be  felt  at  all  stages  of  pregnancy  but  is  also  smaller  than 
the  middle  uterine.  The  latter  is  therefore  the  artery  which  under- 
goes the  greatest  changes,  is  most  readily  felt,  and  is  the  one  usually 
palpated  for  the  information  which  the  arteries  give  in  regard  to 
pregnancy. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  375 

After  the  fetus  becomes  formed,  it  lies  in  the  amniotic  fluid  sur- 
rounded by  the  fetal  membranes  and  is  therefore  easily  movable  as 
a  floating  mass  in  the  liquid.  It  can  sometimes  be  felt  through  the 
rectum  as  a  firm  movable  mass  when  only  six  or  eight  inches  long  and 
in  practically  all  cases  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  month.  Later,  outlines 
of  various  parts  of  the  fetus  can  be  recognized,  such  as  the  head  or 
extremities. 


Fig.  12. — Microphotograph  of  spermatozoa  from  a  bull. 
Magnified  X  800. 

At  the  beginning  of  pregnancy,  the  uterus  and  ovaries  are  entirely 
within  the  pelvic  cavity.  As  gestation  advances  the  uterus  extends 
anteriorly  and,  at  about  the  middle  of  pregnancy,  falls  forward  over 
the  brim  of  the  pelvis.  This  carries  the  ovaries  with  it  so  that  they 
cannot  be  felt  per  rectum.  The  anterior  part  of  the  pregnant  horn 
late  in  pregnancy  extends  forward  and  downward,  almost  to  the  floor 
of  the  abdomen  in  some  cases  in  old  cows.  At  this  time  ballottement 
of  the  fetus  can  be  obtained  by  abdominal  palpation.     There  is  a 


376  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

fairly  constant  change  in  the  character  of  the  vaginal  mucus  during 
pregnancy.  It  tends  to  become  more  tenacious  and  translucent  as 
compared  to  the  stringy  clear  mucus  of  estrum.  Microscopic  exam- 
ination of  smear  preparations  of  vaginal  contents  has  been  used 
with  success  by  Long  and  Evans39  in  experimental  studies  on  white 
rats  to  obtain  information  as  to  the  stage  of  the  estrous  cycle. 

We  have  carried  this  out  daily  over  a  period  of  months  on  ten 
cows,  beginning  a  few  days  following  parturition  and  continuing 
through  the  open  period  and  for  some  weeks  after  the  animals  were 
again  pregnant,  without  coming  to  any  definite  conclusion  as  to  its 
value  in  the  bovine.  In  such  smears  are  found  epithelial  cells  which 
line  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  genital  tract,  polymorphonuclear 
leucocytes,  red  blood  cells,  lymphoid  cells,  and  mucus.  Marked 
changes  in  the  cell  content  were  noted  from  day  to  day,  but  no  definite 
changes  denoting  the  approach  or  cessation  of  estrum,  estrum  itself, 
or  the  establishment  of  pregnancy,  could  be  definitely  detected.  Con- 
siderable improvement  in  the  technique  of  obtaining  smears  will  be 
necessary  before  this  can  be  definitely  stated  to  be  of  no  value  for 
bovines. 

The  important  changes  to  be  noted  in  making  an  early  diagnosis 
of  pregnancy  are  a  change  in  the  character  of  the  vaginal  mucus  and 
the  formation  of  the  uterine  seal,  enlargement  of  the  uterus  and  horns, 
with  the  pregnant  horn  becoming  larger  than  the  non-pregnant, 
increased  pulsation  of  the  uterine  artery,  very  frequently  with  a 
peculiar  type  of  pulsation  not  found  in  other  arteries.  By  careful 
observation  of  these  factors  an  experienced  man  can  diagnose  preg- 
nancy in  from  six  to  ten  weeks  after  conception  has  taken  place.  This 
examination  should  be  conducted  with  care.  When  the  desired  in- 
formation can  be  obtained  by  rectal  examination  this  is  all  that  should 
be  done.  In  bimanual  examination,  by  which  one  hand  is  passed 
into  the  rectum  and  the  other  into  the  vagina,  considerable  straining 
may  be  brought  on  in  the  animal.  The  hand  in  the  vagina,  by  grasp 
ing  the  cervix,  fixes  the  uterus  and  with  slight  traction  posteriorly 
will  assist  the  hand  in  the  rectum  in  outlining  the  body  and  horns 
of  the  uterus  in  some  cases.  There  is  some  evidence  that  such  exam- 
ination at  certain  stages  of  pregnancy  in  some  cows  may  be  followed 
by  abortion ;  this  fact  has  already  been  noted  in  part  III. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  377 


EXTEENAL  MANIFESTATIONS  OF  PEEGNANCY 
The  only  external  manifestation  of  pregnancy  in  the  early  months 
consists  in  an  absence  of  heat  periods,  and  for  reasons  already  men- 
tioned, too  much  dependence  cannot  be  placed  on  this  phenomenon. 
When  external  evidence  must  be  depended  on,  therefore,  it  is  gen- 
erally considered  that  the  animal  must  be  six  months  pregnant  or 
longer  before  definite  conclusions  can  be  drawn.  The  most  valuable 
evidence  is  the  feeling  of  the  fetus  through  the  abdominal  walls  by 
what  is  termed  ballottement.  This  is  done  on  the  right  side  of  the 
cow.  The  operator  presses  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  his  right 
hand  into  the  side  of  the  flank  with  a  sharp  thrust  and  suddenly 
withdraws  but  still  holds  the  hand  against  the  animal 's  side,  repeating 
the  operation  with  momentary  pauses  between  each  thrust.  This 
movement  causes  the  fetus  to  move  back  and  forth  in  the  amniotic 
fluid  in  which  it  is  floating  and  will  cause  it  to  strike  the  abdominal 
wall  and  give  to  the  hand  the  sensation  of  a  solid  object  in  the  abdom- 
inal cavity.  This  is  done  preferably  when  the  animal  is  not  engorged 
with  feed  or  water — and  movement  of  the  fetus  is  more  readily  obtained 
in  thin  cows  with  comparatively  thin-walled  abdomens  than  in  very 
fat  animals.  It  is  good  evidence  of  pregnancy,  although  rarely  an 
intestinal  calculus  or  abdominal  tumor  may  cause  confusion. 

Other  evidence  is  the  enlarged  and  pendulous  nature  of  the 
abdomen,  and  a  feeling  of  the  movements  of  the  fetus  in  utero  through 
the  abdominal  wall,  most  commonly  observed  by  the  milker  or  other 
person  in  close  association  with  the  cow  at  frequent  intervals. 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  THE  PEESENCE  AND 
STAGE  OF  PEEGNANCY 
In  ordinary  dairy  operations  a  knowledge  of  these  conditions  is 
essential  to  economic  production.  Following  abortion  or  breeding 
difficulties  from  a  sterile  or  partially  sterile  bull  plus  the  not  incon- 
siderable amount  of  retained  corpus  luteum  and  delayed  or  absent 
estrual  periods,  the  owner  of  a  herd  of  dairy  cattle  may  suffer  a 
serious  financial  loss  by  not  keeping  informed  regarding  this  point. 
When  animals,  particularly  purebreds,  are  about  to  be  sold  at  private 
sale  or  public  auction  and  shipped  long  distances  under  a  guaranty 
as  breeders  or  as  pregnant  cows,  the  confirmation  of  this  fact  by  an 
examination  often  relieves  the  seller  from  further  responsibility  or 
the  buyer  from  accepting  and  shipping  animals  on  the  breeding  his- 
tory alone. 


378  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

While  in  the  past  its  application  has  been  largely  confined  to  dairy 
cattle,  there  are  certain  conditions  nnder  which  it  becomes  of  par- 
ticular value  in  beef  cattle.  In  culling  out  cows  from  stock  cattle 
herds  for  slaughter,  it  is  sometimes  the  practice  to  pick  cows  with 
no  calves  at  their  sides  as  barren  animals  and  ship  them,  keeping  the 
cows  with  calves  because  they  are  therefore  supposedly  breeders. 
This  is  by  no  means  a  sure  criterion;  the  cow  shipped  may  already 
be  pregnant  while  the  cow  with  calf  at  side  may  never  again  breed. 
Where  bulls  are  constantly  running  on  the  range  an  examination 
of  cows  about  to  be  shipped  may  reveal  the  presence  of  fairly 
advanced  pregnancy,  which  would  under  certain  conditions  make 
it  more  economical  to  keep  such  animals.  A  decision  on  this  point 
in  addition  to  the  condition  of  the  animal  might  depend  somewhat 
on  market  conditions  and  whether  the  market  was  rising  or  falling. 
Nevertheless,  a  man  intending  to  remain  in  the  cattle  business  would 
preferably  dispose  of  cows  that  are  not  pregnant  so  far  as  this  is 
practical.  Especially  would  this  be  the  case  if  the  herd  were  being 
graded  up  by  the  use  of  purebred  bulls  where  the  offspring  would 
be  desired  even  if  short  feed  conditions  necessitated  disposal  of  an 
unfinished  steer  in  place  of  the  pregnant  cow. 

Cattlemen  having  mountain  ranges  bring  the  cattle  out  in  the 
fall.  Cows  not  having  calves  running  with  them  could  then  be  sep- 
arated. Lack  of  a  calf  might  be  due  to  abortion,  the  calf  dying  of 
disease,  or  being  killed  by  predatory  animals,  or  from  the  animal  not 
having  become  pregnant.  Many  such  cows  become  pregnant  during 
the  summer  if  bulls  are  on  the  ranges.  If  the  existence  of  pregnancy 
and  its  duration  are  known,  the  owner  can  act  intelligently  in  decid- 
ing whether  to  sell  or  keep  the  animal.  One  cannot  definitely  recog- 
nize the  presence  of  pregnancy  from  simply  looking  at  an  animal 
until  about  the  end  of  the  sixth  month  or  later,  and  yet  a  cow  three 
to  five  months  pregnant  frequently  might  be  kept  if  this  fact  were 
definitely  known.  When  cows  go  into  winter  quarters  and  calves  are 
separated,  the  cows  could  be  examined  for  pregnancy.  Those  which 
are  not  pregnant  could  be  turned  into  good  pasture  or  fed  in  feed 
lots  to  make  spring  beef,  while  cows  which  are  pregnant  and  intended 
to  be  returned  to  the  range  the  following  summer  need  not  be  fed 
so  well  when  feed  is  scarce  and  high. 

By  working  out  a  system  of  this  kind  it  would  seem  that  the  per- 
centage calf  crop  of  range  herds  could  be  increased  with  profitable 
results.  The  examination  of  range  cattle  is  very  practical  when  a 
chute  is  at  hand  for  the  purpose  and  they  stand  quietly  for  the  oper- 
ator after  he  gets  in  the  chute  behind  them.     Climbing  in  and  out 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTION  ABORTION  379 

of  the  chute  for  each  examination  is  tiresome  but  one  man  can  examine 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  head  of  cattle  per  day  in  this  way.  When 
a  considerable  number  of  cows  are  being  examined  for  pregnancy 
in  this  manner,  with  rectal  examination  only  a  certain  percentage  of 
error  will  occur  from  various  causes,  but  this  will  not  be  sufficient  to 
reduce  seriously  the  value  of  the  work. 

Bounding  up  and  handling  animals  for  this  examination,  par- 
ticularly when  they  are  widely  scattered  on  the  range  or  when  feed 
conditions  are  very  poor,  may  be  too  hard  on  them  to  justify  the 
procedure,  and  such  factors  should  always  be  taken  into  consideration 
by  stockmen  in  weighing  its  advantages  and  disadvantages. 


SUMMAEY  AND  CONCLUSIONS 

The  estrous  cycle  in  cattle  covers  a  period  of  about  twenty-one 
days  and,  under  normal  conditions,  recurs  rather  regularly. 

Absence  of  estrual  periods  even  following  service  cannot  be  taken 
as  positive  evidence  of  pregnancy. 

A  small  percentage  of  cows  may  come  into  estrum  and  accept 
service  one  or  more  times  during  an  apparently  normal  pregnancy. 

A  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  pregnancy  from  about  the  end 
of  the  second  to  the  end  of  the  sixth  month  can  only  be  definitely 
determined  by  rectal  or  vaginal  examination,  or  both.  From  the 
end  of  the  sixth  month  pregnancy  can  usually  be  determined  from 
abdominal  palpation  and  other  external  physical  signs. 

At  attempt  has  been  made  by  us  to  diagnose  pregnancy  prior  to 
the  end  of  the  second  month  by  microscopic  examination  of  the  cells 
in  vaginal  smears,  but  so  far  without  success. 

A  knowledge  of  the  presence  and  duration  of  pregnancy  is  of  great 
economic  value  in  both  dairy  and  beef  cattle  under  certain  conditions. 


380  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


VI 
SCOURS  AND  PNEUMONIA  IN  CALVES 

By  GEOEGE  H.  HAET  and  JACOB  TEAUM 


INTEODUCTION 

Practically  every  veterinarian  and  livestock  man  interested  in 
dairying  and  purebred  cattle  has  had  experience  with  the  diseases  of 
calves  which  occur  in  the  early  days  of  their  lives.  A  great  variety 
of  ailments  has  been  reported.  The  most  important  disease  is  com- 
monly known  under  the  terms  of  white  scours,  calf  scours,  calf 
dysentery,  or  calf  diarrhoea.  Most  writers  on  calf  diseases  describe 
calf  pneumonia  and  navel  infection  under  separate  headings.  While 
these  three  diseases  may  appear  independent  of  each  other,  they 
are  at  times  found  closely  associated.  This  is  particularly  the  case 
with  white  scours  and  pneumonia. 

White  scours  has  further  been  divided,  according  to  the  micro- 
organism that  is  found,  into  various  groups.  Jensen36  established 
groups  according  to  the  organisms  found,  but  also  made  two  large 
divisions  based  upon  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  bacteria  in  the 
blood  and  other  internal  organs.  In  251  cases  examined  in  his 
laboratory  the  following  bacteriological  findings  were  made  : 

Bacterium  coli  Avith  bacteremia 118  cases 

Bacterium  coli  without   bacteremia 53  cases 

Bacterium  paracoli   16  cases 

Bacterium  coli   and  paracoli 3  cases 

Micrococci  18  cases 

Bacterium  proteus  11  cases 

Bacterium  abortum  1  case 

Unclassified  infections  31  cases 

There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  various  organisms  can  set  up 
disturbances  under  different  conditions  and  the  disturbances  may 
differ  from  each  other.  The  difference,  however,  is  not  always  well 
marked  and  the  microbian  cause  not  definitely  settled.  Therefore 
it  is  well  to  discuss  scours  as  a  whole,  irrespective  of  the  predominat- 
ing organisms.  Williams90  goes  still  further  and  treats  the  whole 
subject  of  calf  diseases  under  one  heading,  including  calf  scours, 
pneumonia,  arthritis,  and  navel  infections.    All  observers  agree  that 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  381 

these  may  coexist  or  merge  into  each  other  in  such  a  manner  that  it  is 
very  difficult  to  establish  a  line  of  demarcation.  We  consider  calf 
scours  to  be  the  most  important  cause  of  loss  in  young  animals  and  will 
therefore  confine  the  present  discussion  largely  to  this  disease,  while 
also  taking  recognition  of  the  importance  of  calf  pneumonia. 


BACTERIAL  CAUSES 

It  is  very  evident  that  bacteria  have  been  given  a  prominent  role 
in  the  production  of  the  disease ;  in  fact,  there  is  little  doubt  that  micro- 
organisms are  principally  responsible  for  the  disease  and  the  damage 
wrought,  no  matter  what  may  be  the  predisposing  causes.  The  latter 
will  be  discussed  separately.  It  is  further  noted,  from  what  has  been 
previously  stated,  that  more  than  one  kind  of  micro-organism  has 
been  held  responsible  for  calf  scours,  and  while  one  kind  of  organism 
may  be  found  as  the  causative  agent  on  a  given  dairy  or  breeding 
establishment,  no  investigator  holds  that  one  organism  alone  is  the 
all-important  microbian  factor  in  scours  of  calves. 

The  first  bacteriological  studies  on  this  disease  were  reported  in 
1891  by  C.  0.  Jensen,36  of  Copenhagen,  and  to  date  this  investigator 
and  his  colleagues  have  been  most  prominent  in  the  study  of  calf 
diseases.  Jensen  incriminated  at  first  Bacterium  coli*  which  he 
found  regularly  in  the  blood  and  internal  organs  of  calves  that  had 
died  from  scours.  He  claims  to  have  satisfactorily  infected  healthy 
calves  by  feeding  them  small  amounts  of  cultures  of  Bacterium  coli 
isolated  from  cases  of  scours,  and  to  have  produced  the  typical  scours ' 
picture.  He  could  not,  however,  produce  disease  with  Bacterium  coli 
isolated  from  the  intestinal  tract  of  normal  calves. 

The  Italian  investigators,  Piana,15  and  Monti  and  Varatti,15  agreed 
with  Jensen,  except  that  Piana 's  inoculation  experiments  were  not 
successful  in  producing  the  disease.  Mazzaniti  and  Viggezi15  reported 
finding  a  diplococcus  in  the  cases  of  scours  examined  by  them. 

Poels,15  of  Rotterdam,  published  an  extensive  report  of  diseases 
of  calves  in  1899.  In  this  he  agreed  with  Jensen's  findings  as  to  the 
causative  agent,  but  also  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  scours  may 
be  due  to  other  organisms,  especially  to  a  pseudocolonA 

*  Jensen 's  table  of  carbohydrate  reactions  shows  that  he  encountered  both 
Bacterium  coli  communis  and  Bacterium  coli  communior. 

t  Pseudocolon  was  classed  by  Jensen  with  his  paracoli,  but  Titze  and  Weichel 
found  this  organism  to  agree  with  Bacterium  coli  in  all  respects  except  that  it 
did  not  coagulate  milk  nor  produce  indol  in  peptone  bouillon. 


382  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

The  French  investigators  Lesage  and  Delmar15  were  in  entire 
disagreement  with  the  views  of  the  above-mentioned  men.  They 
recovered  from  diseased  calves  an  ovoid  bacterium  belonging  to 
the  Pasteurella  group.  They  were  unable  to  produce  the  disease  by 
giving  their  organism  in  food,  but  could,  by  intravenous  inoculation, 
cause  a  diseased  condition  resembling  field  cases  of  scours  but  not 
altogether  like  them.  Lesage  and  Delmar  claimed  that  the  colon 
organisms  were  present  in  the  intestines  and  reached  the  blood  and 
other  organs  in  the  agonal  stages  of  the  disease  and  were  not  respon- 
sible for  the  disease. 

Nocard54- 55  investigated  a  disease  in  Ireland  for  which  he  coined 
the  name  "white  scours.'  His  description  of  the  disease  differed 
somewhat  from  the  findings  of  the  authors  previously  mentioned. 
According  to  Jensen,  Nocard  was  dealing  with  a  navel  infection. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  investigation  he  did  not  come  to  any  conclu- 
sion as  to  the  bacterial  cause  since  he  found  Bacterium  coli,  pseudocoli 
and  other  micro-organisms  in  the  tissues  examined.  Later,  however, 
from  a  calf  showing  arthritis,  he  isolated  an  organism  belonging  to 
the  Pasteurella  group  similar  to  the  one  isolated  by  Lesage  and' 
Delmar. 

Titze  and  Weichel81  laid  a  good  deal  of  stress  on  Bacterium  para- 
colic isolated  by  them,  as  a  prominent  factor  in  the  scours  of  calves. 
Before  the  report  of  their  work,  this  bacterium  had  already  been 
found  by  Jensen  and  others.  Titze  and  Weichel  proved  rather  satis- 
factorily the  power  of  Bacterium  paracoli  to  produce  typical  cases  of 
clinical  scours  in  an  experiment  upon  four  calves.  Two  of  these 
calves,  each  two  days  old,  were  fed  cultures  of  this  organism.  With 
each  in  a  separate  stall  was  placed  an  eight-day-old  calf  as  a  control. 
The  infected  calves  developed  typical  scours  and  later  the  control 
animals  also  developed  the  scours  by  association.  In  another  feeding 
experiment  upon  two  calves,  twenty  and  thirty-one  days  old,  respec- 
tively, they  were  again  successful  in  producing  the  disease  with 
cultures  of  Bacterium  paracoli. 

Krautstrunk,38  in  1909,  in  seventy-three  calves  examined  found 
nine  cases  in  which  diplococci  were  obtained  in  pure  culture  from  the 
blood  and  other  organs.  In  sixteen  cases  diplococci  were  associated 
with  Bacterium  coli.  In  a  series  of  investigations  in  which  four 
animals  were  fed  cultures  of  diplococci,  two  injected  into  the 
umbilicus  and  two  others  injected  intravenously,  he  proved  that  this 


*  This  organism  agrees  with  Gaertner  's  enteritidis  organism  and  with  Para- 
typhoid B.,  but  differs  from  the  former  in  serologic  tests  and  from  the  latter  in 
both  serum  reaction  and  in  its  pathogenicity  for  human  beings  and  cattle. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  383 

organism  is  capable  of  producing  the  disease.  These  eight  calves 
were  infected  on  the  day  they  were  born,  they  had  not  partaken  of 
any  food  and  were  placed  in  a  stall  in  which  calves  had  never  been 
kept  before.  He  was  able  to  infect  two  newly-born  calves  with 
cultures  that  were  nine  months  old. 

Christensen,16  in  a  summary  on  paracolibacillosis  of  calves,  found 
that  37.8  per  cent  of  calves  so  affected  were  thirteen  days  to  one  month 
old,  27  per  cent  were  one  month  and  over,  and  only  7  per  cent  were 
under  eight  days  of  age. 

Meyer,  Traum,  and  Roadhouse48  reported  an  outbreak  of  infectious 
diarrhoea  of  calves  caused  by  Bacterium  paracoli.  The  calves  were 
being  used  in  a  feeding  experiment.  The  ages  of  the  calves  that 
sickened  ranged  from  twenty-four  to  eighty-seven  days. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  varieties  of  Bacterium  coli  and  of  most 
of  the  other  organisms  associated  with  calf  scours  have  a  wide  natural 
distribution  and  have  frequently  been  found  in  the  intestinal  tract 
of  normal  calves,  most  investigators,  including  Jensen  and  Titze  and 
Weichel,  made  search  for  filterable  virus  in  order  to  reassure  them- 
selves that  the  organisms  found  by  them  were  not  playing  the  role  of 
secondary  invaders.  The  necessity  was  especially  impressed  upon 
them  when  the  filterable  virus  was  accepted  as  the  cause  of  hog  cholera 
instead  of  the  hog  cholera  bacillus,  which  is  very  much  like  the  para- 
colon organisms  mentioned  above.  By  experiments  on  calves,  the 
above-mentioned  workers  failed  to  demonstrate  the  presence  of  a 
filterable  virus. 

Until  recently  the  diseases  of  calves  have  received  very  little  study 
in  this  country.  The  findings  of  the  investigations  reviewed  here 
have  been  accepted  as  having  sufficiently  solved  the  question.  Control 
measures  based  upon  these  findings  were  adopted  and  found  satis- 
factory to  a  large  extent,  but  such  measures  failed  in  an  important 
percentage  of  outbreaks  of  calf  diseases.  This  failure  stimulated 
renewed  investigations  concerned  not  only  with  the  variety  of  bacteria 
found  but  also  with  the  source  of  infection.  We  will  therefore  discuss 
the  results  of  the  recent  work  under  " Avenues  of  Infection." 

Without  going  into  detailed  experimental  evidence  on  the  bacteri- 
ology of  pneumonia  in  calves,  an  idea  of  the  microorganisms  found  in 
this  malady  may  be  obtained  from  the  following  list  of  ninety-eight 
autopsies  and  bacteriological  examinations  on  calves  affected  with  the 
disease  made  by  Jensen37  and  his  co-workers. 


384  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

6  cases  of  septic  pleuropneumonia  with  Bacterium  vitulasepticus. 

2  cases  of  pneumonia  with  fine  ovoid  bacillus.* 

46  cases  of  pneumonia  with  Bacterium  paracoli. 

14  cases  of  pneumonia  with  Bacillus  pyogenes. 

20  cases  of  pneumonia  with  mixed  bacterial  flora. 

4  cases  of  pneumonia  without  demonstration  of  bacteria. 

4  cases  of  embolic  pneumonia. 

2  cases  of  strongylosis  pneumonia. 

In  this  country  Hagan26  found  Bacterium  coli  associated  with 
pneumonia.  Carpenter  and  Gilman13  found  Bacterium  bovisepticus, 
pseudomonas  pyocyaneus,  streptococci  and  organisms  of  the  colon 
aerogenes  group  in  the  cases  they  studied.  In  twenty-nine  cases 
studied  by  Theobald  Smith,76  Bacterium  actinoides  was  incriminated. 


AVENUES  OF  INFECTION 

In  formulating  recommendations  for  the  control  of  any  infectious 
disease,  it  is  not  only  necessary  to  know  the  kind  of  organism  that  is 
concerned,  but  it  is  equally  or  even  more  important  to  know  how  it 
reaches  its  victim.  Practically  all  the  investigators  above-mentioned 
discuss  this  phase  of  the  question.  Jensen  held  that  the  most  im- 
portant avenue  of  infection  is  the  digestive  tract  and  that  the  infec- 
tion occurs  after  the  calf  has  been  dropped.  Poels  agreed  with  him, 
but  maintained  that  the  infection  probably  is  picked  up  as  the  calf 
passes  through  the  vagina  and  that  infection  by  way  of  the  ruptured 
umbilical  vessels  also  takes  place. 

Lesage  and  Delmar  and  later  Nocard  could  not  produce  disease 
by  feeding  the  Pasteurella  which  they  incriminated  as  the  causative 
organism.  They  could,  however,  set  up  a  process  of  disease  by  intra- 
venous inoculation,  so  they  concluded  that  the  infection  must  take 
place  through  the  ruptured  umbilicus.  Lesage  and  Delmar  explained 
infections  in  older  calves  as  taking  place  through  the  respiratory 
system. 

Titze  and  Wiechel  have  proved  that  infection  does  take  place  by 
way  of  the  digestive  tract. 

In  the  particular  outbreak  reported  by  Meyer,  Traum,  and  Road- 
house,  infection  by  the  digestive  tract  appears  to  be  the  only  plausible 
explanation,  since  infection  spread  to  various  pens  of  animals  which 
were  old  enough  for  the  umbilical  stump  to  have  dried,  dropped  off, 


*  These  organisms  were  very  much  like  Bacterium  vitulasepticus  except  that 
they  were  not  pathogenic  for  rabbits  and  mice. 


Bulletin  353  J  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  385 

and  the  wound  to  have  healed.  Infection  could  hardly  have  been 
charged  to  preexisting  infection  since  the  animals  came  from  different 
ranches. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  work  of  Williams  and  his  colleagues,  it  was 
generally  accepted  that  infection  entered  either  through  the  digestive 
tract  or  the  umbilicus.  Those  believing  the  former  to  be  the  important 
path  of  infection  admitted  that  infection  by  the  umbilicus  was  pos- 
sible, but  claimed  that  it  gave  rise  to  the  entirely  different  disease 
known  as  navel  or  joint  ill. 

Nocard,53  from  his  studies  on  infectious  abortion  in  cattle,  con- 
cluded that  diseases  of  new-born  calves  were  intimately  associated 
with  abortion,  and  claimed  that  infection  of  the  calves  takes  place  in 
the  uterus.  Franck,  before  him,  also  held  this  view.  Nocard,  however, 
in  his  report  of  investigations  on  calf  scours  in  Ireland  maintained 
that  the  animals  became  infected  through  the  umbilicus,  and  it  was 
not  until  Williams  emphasized  the  possibility  that  fundamentally  the 
diseases  of  new-born  calves  are  intra-uterine  infections,  that  this  mode 
of  infection  was  given  serio\is  consideration. 

Williams  and  his  co-workers  made  the  observation  that,  as  soon 
as  the  pharynx  is  properly  formed,  the  fetus  swallows  the  amniotic 
fluid,  which  is  promptly  absorbed  by  the  intestines,  and  the  solids, 
such  as  hair,  bacteria  and  epithelial  scales,  remain  in  the  meconium. 
They  further  demonstrated  that  there  may  be  fetal  diarrhoea  by 
finding  pellets  of  meconium  in  the  gastro-intestinal  tract  of  aborted 
fetuses,  and  that  the  latter  were  not  rarely  covered  with  fecal  matter. 
They  deemed  it  very  desirable  to  know  the  nature  of  the  bacterial 
flora  of  the  meconium,  and  Hagan26  did  some  work  to  determine  this. 
His  results  are  rather  interesting,  though  not  conclusive.  He  worked 
with  meconium  samples  from  two  herds.  In  one  herd,  where  they 
had  very  little  calf  diarrhoea,  six  calves  were  available.  The  meconium 
was  sterile  in  all  six  specimens.  In  the  other  herd,  he  studied  eight 
samples.  In  this  herd,  there  had  been  considerable  calf  scours.  Three 
specimens  were  sterile,  three  contained  Bacterium  coli,  one  showed 
streptococci,  and  one  streptococci  and  staphylococci. 

The  source  of  these  bacteria  in  the  sealed  uterus  was  the  next 
problem  that  confronted  Hagan.  He  examined  material  received 
from  packing  houses  and  endeavored  to  determine  the  bacterial  flora 
of  the  utero-chorionic  space,  of  the  fetal  fluids,  and  of  the  fetal  blood. 
The  surprising  conclusion  was  that  87  per  cent  of  the  samples  taken 
from  the  utero-chorionic  space  yielded  cultures  and  about  one-half 
of  the  bacteria  recovered  were  of  the  colon  group.     The  next  largest 


386  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

variety  of  organisms  were  streptococci.  He  found  that  in  the  fetal 
fluids  only  about  30  per  cent  of  the  samples  contained  organisms,  and 
concluded  that  there  was  a  barrier  somewhere  preventing  the  bacteria 
from  breaking  through  into  the  fetal  fluids.  The  fetal  blood  specimens 
were  practically  all  sterile. 

A  similar  work  was  reported  by  Giltner  and  Bandeen,23  but  with 
different  results.  They  made  a  bacteriological  study  of  ten  uteri  and 
the  meconium  of  calves  which  were  contained  in  these  uteri.  They 
were  working  with  cases  of  metritis,  and  it  is  only  natural  to  expect 
that  the  bacterial  fllora  in  their  cases  would  be  entirely  different  from 
those  examined  by  Hagan.  Giltner  and  Bandeen  were  unable  to 
reconcile  the  bacterial  findings  in  the  uterus  with  the  findings  in  the 
meconium. 

C.  M.  Carpenter12  conducted  a  series  of  bacteriological  examina- 
tions from  which  he  had  hoped  to  determine  (1)  the  organisms  that 
normally  live  in  the  female  genital  tract  of  cattle;  (2)  the  age  at 
which  such  organisms  enter  the  genital  tract;  (3)  the  relation  that 
exists  between  the  organisms  and  the  pathological  conditions  asso- 
ciated with  them;  (4)  the  effect  that  such  organisms  produce  on  the 
fetus  in  utero  or  on  the  calf  after  birth.  His  results  failed  to  permit 
any  definite  conclusions;  in  fact,  he  had  difficulty  in  interpreting  his 
findings  on  the  theory  of  intra-uterine  infections.  He  states:  "It 
seems  as  if  there  must  be  some  unknown  factor  at  work  in  producing 
these  morbid  conditions  in  the  reproductive  organs  of  cattle  and  in 
the  life  of  the  new-born.  I  cannot  see  very  much  etiological  relation 
between  these  conditions  and  the  majority  of  organisms  isolated." 
Carpenter's  findings  are  at  considerable  variance  with  those  of  Hagan. 
In  ten  normal  pregnant  uteri,  the  former  obtained  no  growth  in  six, 
or  60  per  cent,  whereas  Hagan  found  only  13  per  cent  of  twenty 
pregnant  uteri  showing  no  growth.  Further,  Carpenter  did  not  find 
Bacterium  coli  in  any  of  the  uteri  examined  by  him. 

In  summing  up  the  great  amount  of  research  done  on  this  disease, 
the  conclusion  to  be  reached  is  the  fact  that  certainly  more  than  one 
variety  of  organism  is  associated  with  outbreaks  of  the  disease  and 
that  infection  usually  takes  place  through  the  digestive  tract  after 
the  birth  of  the  calf,  and  less  frequently  through  the  umbilical  vessels 
and  in  utero.  In  individual  outbreaks  one  avenue  of  infection  may 
clearly  stand  out  as  the  predominating  route  in  those  particular  cases. 

Another  outstanding  fact  is  that  while  white  scours  is  frequently 
associated  with  infectious  abortion,  and  in  the  minds  of  many  live- 
stock owners  and  veterinarians  has  a  relationship  to  this  disease, 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  387 

Bacterium  abortum  is  not  found  associated  with  it  in  a  way  to 
incriminate  this  organism  in  a  causative  relationship.  This  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  Jensen  found  it  in  only  one  of  251  cases  examined. 
We  have  been  unable  to  find  any  published  reports  of  Bacterium 
abortum  producing  the  disease  experimentally.  The  presence  of 
Bacterium  abortum  infection  in  the  mother,  however,  is  responsible 
for  the  birth  of  premature  and  weakened  calves  which  are  more 
susceptible  to  the  factors  which  bring  on  this  disease.  In  abortion- 
infected  herds  retained  afterbirth,  pyometra,  and  other  conditions 
cause  the  genital  tract  to  become  infected  with  other  organisms. 
These  pass  out  with  the  vaginal  discharges  and  may  run  down  the 
thighs  and  udder  of  the  cow  to  the  teats  from  which  they  can  readily 
be  taken  into  the  gastro-intestinal  tract  of  the  calf.  They  may  reach 
the  mouth  and  stomach  of  the  calf  from  its  licking  or  picking  up  litter 
from  badly  contaminated  surroundings.  Practically  all  the  varieties 
of  bacteria  found  in  affected  calves  are  more  or  less  widely  distributed 
in  nature,  and  when  this  disease  is  present  other  factors  are  probably 
essential  in  causing  them  to  assume  the  pathogenic  role  leading  to  the 
development  of  the  disease.  It  is  evident  from  our  present  knowledge 
that  it  is  not  a  specific  infection,  and  means  cannot  always  be 
developed  to  eliminate  the  organisms  which  are  usually  found  asso- 
ciated with  it.  This  makes  all  the  more  important  a  knowledge  of 
predisposing  factors  and  means  of  eliminating  these. 

INCIDENCE  OF  THE  DISEASE 
This  disease  is  largely  prevalent  in  dairy  herds,  and  the  offspring 
of  purebred  and  highly  developed  grade  herds  seem  to  be  more  sus- 
ceptible than  those  from  ordinary  cattle.  In  purebred  beef  herds  it 
is  found  especially  when  the  animals  are  closely  housed.  Under  range 
conditions  and  in  ordinary  stock  cattle  herds,  despite  occasional  out- 
breaks it  is  rarely  a  factor  of  importance.  It  is  comparatively  rare 
in  small  herds  and  the  incidence  of  the  disease,  severity  of  the  cases, 
duration  of  its  prevalence,  and  difficulties  of  controlling  it  seem  to 
increase  with  the  size  of  the  herd.  Seasons  of  the  year  appear  to 
have  little  effect  on  its  development.  In  large  herds  where  it  is  more 
or  less  endemic,  extremes  of  weather  conditions  seem  to  increase  its 
prevalence  and  enhance  its  virulence.  Thus  it  becomes  more  serious  in 
hot  summer  weather,  severe  rainy  weather,  and  cold  winter  weather.  In 
herds  containing  hundreds  of  head  of  dairy  cattle  it  has  been  observed 
to  continue  throughout  an  entire  year  or  even  a  longer  period.  In  such 
herds,  calf  pneumonia,  arthritis,  and  all  other  forms  of  calf  diseases 


388  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

are  frequently  associated  with  it.  Under  such  conditions  75  to  90  per 
cent  of  the  calves  may  be  attacked  and  from  50  to  100  per  cent  of  the 
cases  have  a  fatal  termination.  The  losses  may  be  so  severe  that  it  may 
become  impossible  to  maintain  the  numerical  strength  of  the  herd 
save  by  the  purchase  of  outside  cattle. 


FACTORS  ASIDE  FROM  BACTERIAL  AGENTS  IN  THE  CAUSATION  OF 

THE  DISEASE 

These  conditions,  of  which  there  are  a  number,  may  properly  be 
classed  as  predisposing  factors  and  are  of  very  great  importance. 
Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  presence  of  abortion  infection 
as  a  factor.  In  abortion-infected  herds,  calves  born  slightly  pre- 
mature and  at  term  but  in  a  weakened  condition  are  more  prone  to 
develop  white  scours  than  would  be  the  case  did  Bacterium  abortum 
infection  not  exist  in  the  genital  tract  of  the  dams. 

Recently  published  work  by  Smith  and  Little78  rather  definitely 
shows  that  feeding  of  colostrum  from  the  dam  is  essential  to  the 
prevention  of  losses  under  some  conditions.  This  idea  was  originally 
advanced  by  Jensen  in  1905,  who  found  that  calves  died  of  enteritis 
when  fed  heated  milk  during  the  first  twenty-four  hours,  which  could 
be  obviated  by  supplying  colostrum  from  the  dam  for  one  day  or 
longer.  In  the  work  of  Smith  and  Little,  ten  calves  fed  colostrum 
all  survived  the  danger  period,  although  three  died  at  twenty-five, 
thirty-eight,  and  forty-five  days,  respectively,  probably  from  some 
kind  of  poison.  In  a  second  group  of  twelve  calves  receiving  no 
colostrum,  nine  died  and  three  survived.  Seven  of  the  nine  died 
within  six  days.  It  would  therefore  seem  from  this  work  that,  under 
certain  conditions,  e.g.,  where  the  prevention  of  tuberculosis  infection 
is  desired  and  it  thus  becomes  necessary  to  at  once  remove  the  calf  and 
feed  it  pasteurized  milk,  some  forms  of  scours  may  be  prevented  by 
giving  normal  lactating  cow  serum  to  the  calves  by  injection  or 
feeding. 

The  remainder  of  the  predisposing  factors  may  all  be  grouped 
under  the  heading  of  improper  calf  husbandry,  and  too  much  stress 
cannot  be  laid  on  their  importance.  To  eliminate  them  includes 
proper  sanitary  measures  at  the  time  of  birth,  followed  by  proper 
feeding  and  housing  of  the  new-born  calf  during  the  first  weeks  of 
its  life.  The  degree  to  which  preventive  measures  must  be  carried 
depends  on  the  amount  and  severity  of  infection.  Marked  results 
in  stopping  the  development  of  new  cases  of  this  disease  have  been 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  389 

obtained  by  Duebler17  in  Pennsylvania  through  the  construction  of  a 
maternity  hospital  consisting  of  from  one  to  several  stalls,  depending 
on  the  size  of  the  herd.  The  building  is  so  constructed  that  each 
stall  opens  to  the  outside  only  and  can  be  thoroughly  disinfected  or 
fumigated  following  each  maternity  case  that  is  placed  in  it.  This 
is  not  a  laborious  practice  to  carry  out  when  the  building  is  available, 
and  it  prevents  the  new-born  from  coming  at  once  into  contact  with 
infected  surroundings,  as  is  so  generally  the  case  in  ordinary  dairy 
farms  where  the  disease  has  been  prevalent  for  weeks  and  months. 
Complete  success  would  not  be  expected  to  result  from  it  in  those 
cases  where  infection  took  place  in  intra-uterine  life  or  at  the  time 
of  birth.  Such  infections,  as  already  mentioned,  are  probably  greatly 
in  the  minority.  Accompanying  such  precaution,  the  navel  should  be 
treated  with  tincture  of  iodine  as  soon  as  practicable  after  birth  and 
kept  dusted  with  drying  powders. 

Feeding  of  the  calf  is  important.  It  is  generally  believed  that  it 
is  essential  for  the  calf  to  get  the  colostrum  from  the  mother  in  order 
for  it  to  expel  the  meconium.  In  raising  healthy  calves  from  tuber- 
culous cows,  this  is  not  desirable  on  account  of  the  danger  of  trans- 
mitting infection.  We  have  seen  new-born  calves  fed  only  pasteurized 
milk  without  any  evidence  of  constipation  or  other  harmful  results. 
There  was,  however,  no  evidence  of  scours  existing  on  this  farm  at 
the  time.  In  outbreaks  of  the  disease,  better  results  are  obtained  in 
some  cases,  when  it  is  practical,  by  letting  the  calf  nurse  the  mother 
during  the  first  ten  days  or  by  feeding  it  raw  milk.  This  statement 
is  based  on  the  experimentally-proved  fact  that  the  milk  of  the 
mother  in  the  first  days  of  lactation,  especially  the  colostrum,  contains 
protective  antibodies  for  infections  that  might  be  transmitted  from 
the  mother  to  the  offspring. 

It  is  important  that  new-born  calves  be  not  given  too  much  milk 
during  the  early  period  of  their  lives.  Our  dairy  cows  are  developed 
to  milk  production  far  in  excess  of  that  needed  to  sustain  the  life  of 
the  offspring.  For  this  reason  there  is  considerable  danger  when 
young  calves  run  with,  and  especially,  are  turned  in  with  their  dams 
twice  daily,  that  they  will  get  too  much  milk.  When  calves  are  being 
pail-fed,  over-feeding  seems  to  be  even  more  serious.  When  the 
disease  is  prevalent  in  a  herd,  the  amount  of  pail-fed  milk  must  be 
kept  down  to  a  minimum,  even  as  little  as  two  pounds  of  whole  milk 
twice  daily  for  the  first  several  days  being  recommended.  It  is 
essential  that  the  milk  at  the  time  of  feeding  be  as  near  body  tempera- 
ture as  possible.     It  must  be  fresh  and  free  from  excessive  numbers 


390  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

of  bacteria.  The  latter  condition  can  only  be  assured  by  handling 
the  milk  in  properly  cleaned  and  sterilized  dairy  utensils,  and  the 
calf  pails  should  be  looked  after  in  this  regard  as  scrupulously  as  any 
of  the  dairy  tinware. 

Housing  of  the  young  calves  should  have  for  its  object  their  pro- 
tection from  the  direct  heat  of  the  sun  in  summer  and  from  rain, 
drafts,  and  winds  in  winter.  At  the  same  time  the  quarters  must  be 
so  constructed  that  they  can  be  readily  cleaned  and  the  calves  handily 
fed.  It  is  preferable  to  so  arrange  the  interior  that  there  can  be 
individual  pens  for  calves  with  sides  to  these  pens  which  can  be 
removed  at  will. 

The  losses  from  this  disease  are  sometimes  the  most  discouraging 
factor  with  which  breeders  are  confronted.  A  little  extra  capital 
invested  in  equipment  to  properly  handle  calves  is  money  wisely 
spent.  Even  when  this  has  been  installed,  it  is  the  all  too  common 
practice  on  a  high  percentage  of  ranches  to  select  a  calf  attendant 
without  any  consideration  of  his  ability  for  the  work.  The  handling 
of  calves  during  the  early  weeks  of  their  lives  is  a  matter  requiring 
patience  and  scrupulous  attention  to  details,  in  addition  to  experience. 
This  can  only  be  found  in  a  better  type  of  man  than  is  usually 
employed  for  the  purpose  on  a  majority  of  our  large  dairy  ranches. 
Owners  will  stop  losses  from  this  disease  when  they  more  fully  realize 
that  the  position  of  calf  attendant  is  one  of  the  more  important  on 
the  dairy.  Good  calf  attendants  are  all  too  scarce  today  and  the 
filling  of.  the  place  requires  the  personal  attention  of  the  owner. 
Frequently  serious  losses  among  healthy  calves,  or  great  reduction  in 
the  incidence  of  the  disease  on  infected  premises,  have  been  observed 
to  follow  a  change  in  calf  attendants. 


PEEVENTION 
Calf  scours  is  a  disease  of  small  consequence  to  the  breeder  having 
small  groups  of  cattle.  Such  men  may  remain  in  the  business  for  years 
and  never  experience  difficulty  in  raising  calves.  Few  or  no  pre- 
ventive measures  are  needed  in  such  cases.  It  is  often  men  of  many 
years '  experience  of  this  kind  that  are  inclined  to  belittle  the  pre- 
cautionary measures  necessary  to  success  on  large  breeding  establish- 
ments. With  the  increase  in  size  of  the  herd,  the  danger  of  the  disease 
making  its  appearance  increases,  and  no  dairy  herds  numbering 
hundreds  of  breeding  animals  will  escape  its  ravages  unless  cognizance 
is  taken  of  the  factors  aside  from  bacterial  agents  in  the  causation 
of  the  disease  which  have  been  outlined  in  the  preceding  pages. 


Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  391 

Medicinally,  one  biologic  product  is  on  the  market  for  the  pre- 
vention of  this  disease,  known  under  the  name  of  calf  scours  serum. 
This  serum  is  obtained  from  horses  immunized  with  strains  of  the 
various  organisms  isolated  from  outbreaks  of  the  disease  in  calves. 
As  a  preventive  measure,  10  to  20  mils  of  this  product  are  given 
subcutaneously  to  the  calves  as  soon  as  they  are  born  and  repeated  one 
or  more  times.  In  some  herds  this  has  been  very  successful  in 
prevention,  while  in  others  little  or  no  benefit  has  been  derived  from 
its  use.  In  some  cases  a  special  serum  prepared  from  strains  of 
organisms  isolated  from  the  affected  calves  on  a  particular  ranch  has 
been  prepared  and  used  with  greater  success  than  was  obtained  with 
the  stock  calf  scours  serum  on  the  market. 

Jensen,  of  Copenhagen,  has  developed  this  specific  serum  produc- 
tion to  a  high  degree.  On  a  great  many  farms  in  Denmark  they  have 
indexed  the  kind  of  organisms  found  on  the  individual  farms,  and 
have  a  specific  serum  for  each  farm.  In  case  they  have  a  call  for 
serum  from  a  farm  for  which  they  have  not  developed  a  specific 
strain,  they  give  a  polyvalent  serum  and  endeavor  to  isolate  the 
organism  causing  those  particular  cases.  If  serological  tests  show 
that  they  have  a  serum  that  will  check  the  trouble,  they  use  that 
serum;  otherwise,  another  horse  is  immunized  against  the  particular 
strain.  The  Jensen  method  has  met  with  great  success.  The  investi- 
gators over  there  have  worked  with  this  group  of  diseases  so  long 
that  the  procedure  has  become  a  regular  routine,  and  they  seem  to 
be  well  satisfied  with  their  results. 

On  those  farms  where  calf  pneumonia  is  prevalent,  the  use  of  calf 
pneumonia  bacterins  is  recommended. 


TREATMENT 

The  prevention  of  this  disease  is  more  important  than  treatment, 
and  when  large  numbers  of  calves  are  being  handled  it  frequently 
becomes  impossible  to  devote  a  great  amount  of  time  to  individual 
cases.  The  first  step  in  treating  this  disease  is  to  completely  with- 
draw milk  from  tn*e  diet  for  a  period  of  twenty-four  hours.  Warm 
water,  water  containing  one  or  two  raw  eggs,  or  barley  water,  may 
be  substituted.  Milk  may  then  be  added  to  the  diet  but  given  verj7 
sparingly,  and  its  effect  observed. 

Calf  scours  serum  may  be  used  as  a  curative  agent  in  doses  of 
50  to  100  mils  or  more  if  the  value  of  the  calf  warrants  the  cost. 

Alkaline  treatment,  as  recommended  by  Frost  and  Varley,  has 
given  good  results  in  some  cases  in  competent  hands.    This  treatment 


392  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 

is  based  on  human  experience,  that  where  the  feces  in  cases  of 
diarrhoea  in  the  new-born  child  are  not  allowed  to  remain  acid, 
fatalities  are  exceedingly  rare.  Normally,  the  feces  of  the  calf  should 
be  alkaline  or  neutral,  and  when  scours  develop  they  soon  become  acid. 
Acidity  is  determined  by  testing  the  feces  with  ordinary  litmus  paper. 
When  acidity  is  present,  one  ounce  of  sodium  bicarbonate  and  two 
drams  of  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  in  one  pint  of  warm  water 
should  be  given  one  hour  before  feeding,  night  and  morning,  as  an 
antacid  and  stimulant. 

In  cases  of  calf  pneumonia,  good  results  have  followed  the  use  of 
calf  pneumonia  bacterins.  Especially  have  such  procedures  resulted 
favorably  when  the  organisms  causing  the  infection  on  the  particular 
farm  are  used  in  the  bacterin.  When  pneumonia  tends  to  develop 
in  calves  recovered  from  scours,  these  bacterins  should  be  given  as 
soon  as  the  animals  are  safely  out  of  danger  from  the  diarrhoea. 


Bulletin  353]  bovine  infectious  abortion  393 


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Bulletin  353]  BOVINE  INFECTIOUS  ABORTION  397 


GLOSSARY 

Aerobically.     In  the  presence  of  oxygen. 

Amnion.     Innermost  membrane  covering  the  fetus. 

Amniotic  fluid.    Fluid  contained  in  the  amnion  which  surrounds  the  fetus. 

Atresia.    Absence  of  or  narrowing  of  a  normal  opening. 

Bacillus.    Kod-shaped  bacteria. 

Bacteremia.    The  presence  of  bacteria  in  the  blood. 

Cervix.     The  neck  of  the  uterus  opening  into  the  vagina. 

Chorionitis.     Inflammation  of  the  chorion  or  external  membrane  covering  the  fetus. 

Chorion.     Outermost  membrane  covering  the  fetus. 

Cocci.     Spherical-shaped  bacteria. 

Coruna.     Horn.     Applied  to  the  right  and  left  horns  of  the  uterus. 

Corpus  luteum.     The  yellow  body  which  fills  the  cavity  in  the  ovary  from  which 

the  ovum  is  discharged. 
Cotyledons.     The  points  of  attachment  of  the  fetal  membranes  to  the  wall  of 

the  uterus. 
Desquamation.     Separation  or  casting  off  of  the  surface  of  any  membrane. 
Diphtheroid.     Applied  to  bacteria  resembling  the  diphtheria  bacillus. 
Diplococci.    Spherical-shaped  bacteria  growing  in  twos. 
Endometritis.     Inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  uterus. 
Endometrium.     Membrane  lining  interior  surface  of  uterus. 
Epididymis.     A  part  of  the  testicle. 

Fallopian  tubes.    Same  as  oviduct.    Tube  connecting  ovary  with  horn  of  uterus. 
Fimbriated.     Fringed-like  end  of  oviduct  surrounding  ovary. 
Graafian  follicle.     Spherical  body  in  ovary  containing  the  ovum. 
Hemolyze.     Dissolution  of  red  blood  cells. 
Medulla  oblongata.    Part  of  central  nervous  system  connecting  spinal  cord  and 

brain. 
Metritis.     Inflammation  of  the  uterus. 
Oviduct.    Tube  connecting  ovary  with  horn  of  uterus. 
Pasteurella.     A  group  of  short  polar  staining  bacteria. 
Per  os.    By  the  mouth. 

Placenta.     The  membrane  within  the  uterus  which  establishes  communication 

between  mother  and  offspring. 
Placentitis.     Inflammation  of  the  placenta  or  fetal  membrane. 
Polyvalent.     Capacity  of  resisting  infection  with  more  than  one  organism  or 

strain  of  bacteria. 
Pseudomonas.    A  motile  bacteria  with  a  single  hairlike  process  at  one  end. 
Salpingitis.    Inflammation  of  the  tube  connecting  ovary  and  horn  of  the  uterus. 
Seminal  vesicles.    Pouches  in  the  male  genital  tract  for  the  collection  of  semen. 
Spermatozoa.     The  male  reproduction  cell. 
Spirilla.    A  coil-shaped  bacteria. 
Streptococci.     Spherical  bacteria  growing  in  chains. 
Vibrios.    Similar  to  spirilla.    A  coil-shaped  bacteria. 


